19.1:
Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system, or ANS, is a network of motor neurons that regulates the activity of smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands.
The ANS is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, which regulate opposing functions.
The sympathetic division prepares the body for an emergency fight or flight response. It elevates heart and metabolic rates and increases mental alertness. At the same time, it represses the activity of the digestive and urinary systems.
In contrast, the parasympathetic division plays a role in digestion and rest activities. It stimulates defecation and urination and decreases heart, metabolic, and respiratory rates.
The ANS uses a two-neuron pathway to stimulate or inhibit its effectors.
The first neuron, known as the preganglionic neuron, originates in the brainstem or spinal cord. It is lightly myelinated and carries impulses from the CNS to the autonomic ganglion or the adrenal medulla, inside the adrenal gland.
The second neuron, the unmyelinated postganglionic neuron, originates in the autonomic ganglion and carries impulses to the effector muscle or gland.
19.1:
Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a critical component of the peripheral nervous system, primarily responsible for regulating involuntary bodily functions and maintaining homeostasis. It functions in tandem with the central nervous system (CNS) to seamlessly coordinate various physiological processes without the need for conscious control.
The ANS comprises two main divisions: the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. These divisions function antagonistically to maintain a dynamic balance, responding adaptively to different physiological demands.
The Sympathetic Division:
The sympathetic division orchestrates the "fight-or-flight" response, preparing the body for action during stress or danger. Key physiological changes triggered by this division include an increased heart rate, dilation of blood vessels, and a heightened release of stress hormones, notably adrenaline and norepinephrine. Norepinephrine, in particular, plays a significant role in activating this response by acting as a neurotransmitter at the synaptic level and as a hormone in the bloodstream, ensuring a comprehensive and sustained reaction to stress.
The Parasympathetic Division:
On the other hand, the parasympathetic division promotes the "rest-and-digest" response. This division aids in relaxation, digestion, and conservation of energy. It counterbalances sympathetic activity by slowing down the heart rate, facilitating decreased respiratory rates, and enhancing digestive processes. The parasympathetic division is pivotal in helping the body to recover, conserve energy, and maintain a state of calm.
Autonomic Tone and Hypothalamic Regulation:
Autonomic tone refers to the prevailing influence exerted by both sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, crucial for the optimal functioning of various organ systems. The hypothalamus is pivotal in regulating these autonomic responses and orchestrates various autonomic functions through a sophisticated network of neurons. It integrates multiple signals and modulates the balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic outputs to ensure homeostasis.
The interplay between these two divisions is essential in maintaining homeostasis. For instance, during high-stress situations, the sympathetic division dilates pupils for better vision, increases heart rate, widens airways, and suppresses digestion. In contrast, once the crisis subsides, the parasympathetic division restores normalcy by constricting pupils, slowing the heart rate, normalizing respiratory rates, and promoting digestive activities.