使用威胁概率任务，以评估焦虑和恐惧在不确定性和一定的威胁
Summary
Potentiation of the startle reflex is measured via electromyography of the orbicularis oculi muscle during low (uncertain) and high (certain) probability electric shock threat in the Threat Probability Task. This provides an objective measure of distinct negative emotional states (fear/anxiety) for research on psychopathology, substance use/abuse, and broad affective science.
Abstract
某些威胁和焦虑不确定威胁的恐惧是不同的情感与独特的行为，认知，注意力和神经解剖学的组件。既焦虑和恐惧可以通过测量惊跳反射的增强作用进行了研究，在实验室。惊跳反射是当一个有机体受到威胁和需要防御很高，得到增强防御反射。惊跳反射是通过肌电图（EMG）的眼轮匝肌进行了简短的，激烈的，声阵阵白噪声（ 即 “不惊人死不休探测器”）的诱发评估。惊吓增效的计算公式为展示套视觉威胁线索的信号传递温和的电击相对于套匹配线索信号没有冲击（无威胁线索）的过程中增加了惊吓反应幅度。在威胁概率任务，怕是通过惊吓增效，以很高的概率（100％扣队伍冲击测量; certai不确定的）威胁线索，n）的威胁线索，而焦虑是通过惊吓增效，以低概率（20％扣队伍冲击测量。惊吓增效的威胁概率任务过程中的测量提供了一个客观的，容易实现的替代方案的评估，通过自我报告或其他方法（ 例如 ，神经影像学检查），可能是不恰当的或不切实际的一些研究人员的负面影响。惊吓增效经过严格的研究在动物（ 例如 ，啮齿动物，非人类灵长类动物）和人类这有利于动物到人类的转化研究。在确定与不确定的威胁惊吓增效提供了一个客观的衡量消极的情感和独特的情感状态（恐惧，焦虑），以研究在精神病理学，药物使用/滥用和广泛的情感科学使用。因此，它已被广泛兴趣在精神病理病因临床科学家和感兴趣的INDIVI情感科学家双重差异的情感。
Introduction
威胁概率任务的总体目标是通过实验解开应对低概率（ 即不确定性）威胁的恐惧反应概率高（ 即一定的）威胁的焦虑的表情。当威胁某些方面是定义不清发生的不确定性。而焦虑能够以多种方式进行说明，而加剧响应低概率或其他不确定负面事件是一个显着的临床症状在焦虑症1,2。此外，增加焦虑相关的生理过程中的冲击不明朗的威胁与恐惧有关的生理过程中的冲击一定的威胁实验室的任务可能会提供一个生理标志为焦虑症3响应响应。抑制焦虑不确定的威胁，特别是可能是应激反应抑制药物如酒精4-7性能的一个重要组成部分。在UNC增加焦虑ERTAIN威胁可能标志着大脑的压力下电路长期用药4,8àneuroadaptation。因此，威胁概率任务提供了消极的情感和独特的情感状态（焦虑，恐惧）在研究精神病理学使用，药物使用/滥用和情感的科学客观的衡量。因此，它可以是一个强大的工具，供有兴趣的精神病理病因和情感个体差异临床上和情感上的科学家。
用于研究的人类情感传统方法
情感科学家们使用了许多措施和范式来研究人类的情感9，但其中大部分都不能提供的威胁概率任务中来解析其他负面情绪焦虑必要的精度，如恐惧。例如，自报是常用的，但它可能会受到需求的特点和其他形式的反应偏差的。参加者可能不ABLE要焦虑和恐惧，他们的报告，底层神经生物学机制的连接准确区分是远端的最好的。此外，自我报告必须经常进行追溯自反省和报告的过程中可能会以其他方式改变的情感刺激参与者的经验。当然，回顾性报告患有记忆干扰和退化。 Psychophysiologists通常衡量一个影响操作，涉及到演示文稿的情感动人画面10时的情绪。这张照片查看任务很好的验证，较少受自我报告的不足之处，并导致有关的情感反应的个体差异及其对精神病理学11,12贡献了许多重要见解。然而，只有广泛的负面影响是这幅画查看任务不允许对不同的负面情绪，如焦虑和恐惧在研究过程中测量whicH可与威胁概率任务来测量。期间引起的负面影响，但这些方法可能是太昂贵了许多研究工作中的情感神经科学家经常测量功能性磁共振成像（fMRI）技术。此外，功能磁共振成像方法的空间分辨率和时间分辨率，目前有限的，难以让fMRI来解开认为与焦虑相对于其他情绪相关的神经结构。更重要的是，任何类型的负的良好定义的fMRI指数影响也尚未确立。
翻译研究与利用的惊吓反应的动物
与动物提供了从恐惧焦虑理清所需要的精度的第一个例子的基础研究之后，威胁概率任务为蓝本。神经科学家已经使用小心控制病变的研究与啮齿动物模型的焦虑和恐惧使用差分应对不确定性和certa触电的线索威胁。这项工作阐明，以低概率，含糊不清的，远端或其他不确定休克焦虑相关的反应的重要差异与恐惧有关的反应极有可能，明确的规定，即将一定的冲击13。不确定的威胁，引起冻结和动物过度警觉，而某些威胁引发主动回避，防御攻击，或两者14。迫在眉睫，一定威胁注意力集中在威胁自己，而远，时间上不确定的威胁，鼓励分散关注整体环境15 – 17。响应时间不确定的威胁似乎被持续的，而响应于某些威胁是相位和时间锁定到的威胁13。在相关的工作中，病变的研究表明，响应于不确定的威胁是由促肾上腺皮质激素释放因子和去甲肾上腺素途径通过横向选择性地介杏仁核的中央核和终纹18的床细胞核分裂。大部分工作使用的听觉惊恐反应作为主要取决于测量13，这是在威胁概率任务中使用的相同依赖性度量的增强作用。惊跳响应电路的神经生物学衬底已被广泛研究以明确连接的发现，以积极应对不确定和某些威胁19,20的脑部结构。惊吓反应可以在许多物种提供了强大的翻译工具，研究情绪进行评估。在人类的惊吓反应条件反射发生反应突然激烈的听觉刺激。惊跳是最经常被放置在眼睛的眼轮匝肌（盖关闭）肌肉肌电图（EMG）电极来测量在人。当一个生物体呈现恐吓stimul惊人死不休的相关肌电活动得到增强我们如即将发生的电击相对于无威胁的刺激19。
无冲击，可预见的冲击，不可预知的冲击（NPU）的任务和威胁的不确定性
威胁概率任务是由Grillon和同事的启发，当这些研究人员推出了采用惊吓增效的学习焦虑和恐惧的人与无冲击，可预见的冲击，不可预知的冲击（NPU）任务21。在西工大任务的可预测的情况下，冲击是100％的线索队伍，发生在一个一致的，已知的时间（简要提示呈现结束）。在西工大任务的不可预知的情况下，震荡是完全不可预测的。患者创伤后应激和恐慌症期间不可预测的，但不可预测的冲击，在西工大任务22,23表现出选择性增加惊跳增强作用。在其他工作中，药物处方来治疗焦虑症有惊吓potentiati的影响更大在不可预知的冲击比预测的冲击，在西工大任务24时期间。在酒精的抗焦虑作用的研究，莫葛博士和科廷科技大学4所使用的西工大任务来表明中等剂量的酒精选择性降低时不可预知的，但不可预测的冲击的威胁惊吓增效。不确定因素是多方面的，在西工大任务的不可预知条件下的冲击是不确定的问候双方如果他们出现（概率的不确定性）， 当它们发生（时间不确定）。许多理论认为，不确定性的WHEN尺寸生产的焦虑19的关键。然而，从科廷科技大学等 5数据表明一个共同的机制，在不同类型的不确定性的焦虑启发。这里所描述的威胁概率任务操纵有关如果在持有的不确定性的所有其他方面不变从而清楚会发生震动的不确定性什么方面的不确定性是负责该任务呈现效果。使用不惊人死不休增效来威胁线索的任务是灵活的，还可以通过情感的科学家修改操作有关，其中冲击将要发生的25和多么糟糕，他们将7,26的不确定性。所有这些任务的，威胁概率的任务是最简单的，由于不确定性的一个方面，最简单的实现来解释它的工作重心之一，由于其包含的只有两个威胁的不确定性变量（低概率，高冲击的概率）。
威胁概率任务
在威胁概率任务，参与者从阴极射线管（CRT）显示器坐在约1.5m。威胁线索都显示在监视器上，每次5秒，可变的持续时间ITI（范围= 15-20秒）。威胁线索被分成几组两个冲击威胁的条件和一个无威胁的情况（见<stroNG>图1）。在这两种威胁的条件下200毫秒时间震荡在4.5秒被送入提示呈现时代到参加者的手指。在100％的威胁概率条件下，冲击正在呈现每个线索的过程中传递。在20％的威胁概率条件下，冲击被介绍1，每5线索的过程中传递。与会者认为每个威胁概率条件下两套（15线索总量）。与会者还认为，两个中性集，信号没有威胁线索（无威胁的线索，线索15条记录）。在监视器上显示文本通知下一组类型的参与者。在显示屏的左上角的整组期间显示的标签的集合类型。不同颜色的线索被用来为每个条件，以便各组的参加者的意识。在整个任务中，刺激呈现程序提供了声惊吓探针的102分贝白噪声50毫秒脉冲的形式参加通过耳机提供近瞬时的上升时间。听觉惊恐探针在4秒内递送到线索的子集的呈现。额外探针递送在13秒和15秒后提示的工业培训期间偏移减小探针的可预测性。任何呈现视觉刺激之前，任务开始交付3听觉惊恐的探针主要任务测量之前立即，观察者的惊恐反应。研究者平衡以控制为习惯和致敏作用27,28跨学科内条件的听觉惊恐探针的序列位置。对于一个完全抵消一系列试验的威胁概率任务的一个例子见补充材料。
威胁概率任务已经用于证明低概率（不确定）单独休克是足以引起焦虑和允许的醇的抗焦虑作用的评估<sup> 6。与相关的大麻使用者的初步研究表明威胁概率任务，也可用于评估停药29的效果。因此，威胁概率任务提供了一个容易实现的，可以替代昂贵和不够精确的方法不同的负面情绪状态（ 例如，焦虑和恐惧）的研究精神病理学，药物使用/滥用，和广泛的情感科学的客观的衡量标准。
Protocol
Representative Results
Discussion
威胁概率任务可用于通过评估惊跳增强作用，以低概率（不确定）和电击的概率很高（一定）的威胁来研究焦虑和恐惧的表达。在该任务中所使用的主要取决于测量和威胁意外事件可以与啮齿类，非人灵长类和人类中使用，因此，对于研究表达的负面影响13,18,40提供一种优异的平移工具。惊吓增效电击的威胁有明确的连接，防御系统激活，可耐意志控制，并有明确的神经生物学基板。这是…
Divulgazioni
The authors have nothing to disclose.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by Grants R01AA15384 from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism and 5R01DA033809-02 from the National Institute of Drug Abuse to John J. Curtin.
Materials
| Name of Material/ Equipment | Company | Catalog Number | Comments/Description |
| Amplifier | Numerous options | N/A | See Curtin, Lorenzo, and Allen (2007) for a list of vendors. |
| Small Ag/AgCl EMG Sensors | Discount Disposables | TDE-023-Y-ZZ-S | 4mm, and 48in lead length |
| http://www.discountdisposables.com/ | |||
| Large Ag/AgCl EMG sensor | Discount Disposables | TDE-022-Y-ZZ-S | 8mm, and 48in lead length |
| http://www.discountdisposables.com/ | |||
| Small electrode collars | Discount Disposables | TD-23 | 5mm |
| http://www.discountdisposables.com/ | |||
| Large electrode collars | Discount Disposables | TD-22 | 8mm |
| http://www.discountdisposables.com/ | |||
| Shock box | Custom | Custom | See supplemental material for a circuit diagram for the custom shock box used by the Curtin laboratory. An example of a commerical shock box can be found at: http://www.psychlab.com/stim_SHK_shockers.html |
| Alcohol pads | Fisher Scientific | 06-669-72 | http://www.fishersci.com/ecomm/servlet/home?storeId=10652 |
| Exfoliant gel | Weaver and Company | NuPrep | http://www.weaverandcompany.com/index.html |
| Conductive Gel | Electro-Cap International | ECA E9 | http://www.electro-cap.com/ |
| Gauze pads | Neuromedical Supplies | 95000025 | http://www.neuroscan.com/supplies.cfm |
| Blunt Needle | Electro-Cap International | E8B | http://www.electro-cap.com/ |
| Medical tape | Neuromedical Supplies | 95000032 | http://www.neuroscan.com/supplies.cfm |
| Electrode Sterilizing Solution | Emergency Medical Products: | MX-2800 | Gloves should be warn when handling metricide |
| http://www.buyemp.com | |||
| Headphones | Sennheiser | 4974 | Head phones should be capable of repeatedly delivering startle probe’s at the level chosen by experimenters (e.g.,102 db) |
| http://en-us.sennheiser.com/ | |||
| Participant monitoring camera. | PolarisUSA | BC-660B | Infrared capable camera so participant can be monitored while lights are off in experiment room. |
| http://www.polaris.com/en-us/home.aspx | |||
| Infrared panel | PolarisUSA | IR-TILE | http://www.polaris.com/en-us/home.aspx |
| Video monitor for participant monitoring | Marshall Electronics | M-Pro CCTV 19 | http://www.marshall-usa.com/IVS/monitors/M-Pro_CCTV_19.html |
| Stimulus Computer | Dell | Dell Optiplex3010 | Most modern computers appropriate |
| http://www.dell.com/ | |||
| Sound card (Stimulus computer) | Creative | 70SB127000002 | http://us.store.creative.com/Creative-Sound-Blaster-XFi-Titanium-HD/M/B0041OUA38.htm. The sound card delivers the startle probes. An example of a stand alone noise generator can be found at: http://www.psychlab.com/stim_TG_WN_sound.html# |
| I/O card (Stimulus computer) | Measurement Computing | PCI-DIO24 | I/O card allows control of shock box and communication of event markers (e.g., for startle probe occurrence) to data collection computer. |
| http://www.mccdaq.com/pci-data-acquisition/PCI-DIO24.aspx | |||
| Stimulus control software | Psychtoolbox | N/A | Open source (free) toolbox based in Matlab |
| Psychtoolbox.org | |||
| Computational platform for stimulus control and data reduction | MathWorks | N/A | Required to use Psychtoolbox and EEGLab (below) |
| http://www.mathworks.com/products/matlab/ | |||
| Data collection computer | Dell | Dell Optiplex3010 | Most modern computers are appropriate |
| http://www.dell.com/ | |||
| Psychophysiology acquisition software | Numerous options | N/A | See Curtin, Lorenzo, and Allen (2007) for a list of vendors. |
| Stimulus Monitor | Acer | Acer AL1916W | http://us.acer.com/ac/en/US/content/group/monitors |
| Data Collection Monitor | Acer | Acer AL1916W | http://us.acer.com/ac/en/US/content/group/monitors |
| Participant CRT monitor | ViewSonic | P810 | http://www.viewsonic.com/us/ |
| Data processing software | EEGLab | N/A | Open source (free) software package based in Matlab |
| http://sccn.ucsd.edu/eeglab/ |
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