原子力显微镜检查DNA损伤识别核苷酸切除修复
Summary
Here, the study of different DNA lesion recognition approaches via single molecule AFM imaging is demonstrated with the nucleotide excision repair system as an example. The procedures of DNA and protein sample preparations and experimental as well as analytical details for the AFM experiments are described.
Abstract
AFM imaging is a powerful technique for the study of protein-DNA interactions. This single molecule method allows the simultaneous resolution of different molecules and molecular assemblies in a heterogeneous sample. In the particular context of DNA interacting protein systems, different protein complex forms and their corresponding binding positions on target sites containing DNA fragments can thus be distinguished. Here, an application of AFM to the study of DNA lesion recognition in the prokaryotic and eukaryotic nucleotide excision DNA repair (NER) systems is presented. The procedures of DNA and protein sample preparations are described and experimental as well as analytical details of the experiments are provided. The data allow important conclusions on the strategies by which target site verification may be achieved by the NER proteins. Interestingly, they indicate different approaches of lesion recognition and identification for the eukaryotic NER system, depending on the type of lesion. Furthermore, distinct structural properties of the two different helicases involved in prokaryotic and eukaryotic NER result in and explain the different strategies observed for these two systems. Importantly, these experimental and analytical approaches can be applied not only to the study of DNA repair but also very similarly to other DNA interacting protein systems such as those involved in replication or transcription processes.
Introduction
原子力显微镜（AFM）是分析蛋白质 – DNA相互作用1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9的有力技术。它只需要少量的样品材料，以单分子水平的分辨率直接观察异质样品。蛋白质的不同构象或寡聚状态可能产生异质性。特别地，在蛋白质-DNA样品的上下文中，蛋白质复合物可以显示通常的DNA结合诱导的不同化学计量学和/或构象，或者结合DNA中的特定靶位点。不均匀的样品也可能含有两种（或多种）不同种类的蛋白质和不同的蛋白质复合物形式（ 例如 ，仅由一种类型的蛋白质与异源复合物组成）可能与DNA不同的相互作用。这里讨论的研究利用空气中的AFM成像技术，将DNA修复蛋白的静态，干燥样品结合到长（〜900个碱基对，bp）的含有病变的DNA片段，其代表这些蛋白质的靶标。 AFM的高分子分辨率允许区分不同类型的蛋白质复合物并确定蛋白质在DNA片段上的结合位置。重要的是，将损伤引入到确定位置的DNA底物中。因为DNA中的病变部位的位置是已知的，所以与DNA结合的蛋白质的分布提供了（不同的）蛋白质复合物的（不同的）病变识别特性的洞察， 例如 ，它们如何识别特定类型的病变（比较对未损伤的DNA） 2，3 ， <supclass =“xref”> 4，5，6 。他们在DNA上的位置也可以区分特异性结合病变的蛋白质复合物和DNA上非特异性结合的复合物。这些不同复杂类型（复合物特异性结合病变与非特异性复合物）的分离表征可以揭示在靶位点鉴定中诱导的复合物中潜在的构象变化。
在这里聚集的DNA修复蛋白是解旋酶，其负责核苷酸切除修复（NER）途径中的病变识别。在细菌中，NER通过蛋白质UvrA，UvrB和UvrC实现。 UvrA负责UvaA 2 / UvrB 2 DNA扫描复合物中的初始病变感测。通过UvrB的病变验证，该复合物转化为在病变部位结合的单体UvrB，然后该特异性复合物可以招募p核型NER核酸内切酶UvrC。 UvrC切除含有病变的短（12-13nt）单链DNA（ssDNA）。然后通过DNA聚合酶重新填充缺失的片段。最后，DNA连接酶用原始DNA 9,10密封新合成的片段。在真核生物中，NER级联的大多数蛋白质是大的多聚体转录因子II H（TFIIH）复合物的一部分。 通过三聚体CEN2-XPC-HR23B复合物进行初始病变感染后，TFIIH被引入DNA靶位点。当复合物中的XPD验证NER靶病变的存在时，招募真核NER核酸内切酶XPG和XPF以消除含有病变9,10的短（24-32nt）片段的ssDNA。具体来说，研究了分离自原核和真核NER的解旋酶UvrB和XPD。这些解剖器需要不配对的区域DNA（DNA气泡）连接到两条DNA单链之一上，随后沿着ATP水解促进的该链转移。除DNA损伤之外，DNA泡也被引入作为蛋白质负载位点的底物中。
以前已经描述了用于制备特定病变DNA底物的方法11 。它需要一个循环DNA构建体（质粒），其具有用于切口酶的两个紧密间隔的限制性位点。在本研究的上下文中，使用质粒pUC19N（2729bp）（由S.Wilson的实验室，NIEHS创建）。该质粒含有三个紧密间隔的限制性位点，用于构建48个核苷酸（nt）延伸的切口酶Nt.BstNBI。与切口酶孵育后，可以除去这些位点之间的ssDNA片段，并用含有任何靶标特征的寡核苷酸代替。在每个步骤之后，通过琼脂糖凝胶测试完全酶消化电泳。由于与原来的超螺旋质粒相比，镍环状DNA的电泳迁移率较低，因此可以区别。通过用特异性底物寡核苷酸替代除去的拉伸的替代物可以通过限制酶进行消化来进行评估，所述限制酶将底物专门在切口之间的区域内切割。因此，通过酶对圆形质粒的线性化将被抑制，并且在插入特异性寡核苷酸后恢复。最后，两个核酸内切酶限制性位点（理想的是单个切割器）允许产生线性DNA底物，其长度根据需要和特定的靶位点在确定的位置以及与病变相距一定距离的DNA气泡'或3'方向。
可以通过 AFM成像来检查NER解旋酶对病变的识别。在t处的解旋酶失调的DNA易位他的病变部位作为DNA上的蛋白质位置分布的峰值可见，表明病变识别。因为这些解旋酶的DNA易位进一步是定向的，具有5'至3'极性，病变识别对加载位点的位置（病毒上游或下游的DNA气泡）的依赖性还指示是否优先识别病变在易位或相对的非易位的ssDNA链5,9上 。在以下部分中，将介绍所使用的方法，并简要讨论这些实验的主要发现。重要的是，类似于本文所示的DNA修复的示范性工作，AFM成像可以应用于不同DNA相互作用系统的研究，例如DNA复制或转录8,12,13,14 </SUP>。
Protocol
Representative Results
Discussion
蛋白质在含有特定靶位点的长DNA片段上的结合位置的AFM统计分析可以揭示蛋白质识别这些位点2,3,4,5,6的特定策略的有趣细节。为了解释所得到的位置分布，DNA中靶标的位置需要精确地知道。这是通过将定义明确的序列位置的特定位点引入循环质粒DNA并使用限制酶技术切割包含该特异位点的DNA片段来实现的。在蛋白质结合位置的AFM图像分析中，只有具有正确长度的DNA片段（与切出的片段的全长一致?…
Disclosures
The authors have nothing to disclose.
Acknowledgements
PUC19N，含CPD的寡核苷酸和p44分别由Samuel Wilson，Korbinian Heil和Thomas Carell以及Gudrun Michels和Caroline Kisker提供。这项工作得到德意志民主共和国（DFG）FZ82和TE-671/4向IT部门的资助。
Materials
| Molecular Force Probe (MFP) 3D | Asylum Research | N/A | atomic force microscope (AFM) |
| Precision 390 | DELL | N/A | computer |
| ThermoMixer and 1.5 ml block | Eppendorf | 5382000015 | heat block for DNA preparation |
| Rotilabo Block-Heater H 250 & blocks for 0.5 ml tubes | Carl Roth GmbH | Y264.1 & Y267.1 | heat block for protein-DNA incubations |
| Mini-Sub Cell GT | Bio-Rad Laboratories GmbH | 1704467 | electrophoresis chamber with gel caster and power supply |
| Power Pac Basic | Bio-Rad Laboratories GmbH | 1645050 | electrophoresis power supply |
| Centifuge 5415 D with rotor | Eppendorf | 2262120-3 | table centrifuge |
| Ultra-Lum electronic UV transillumonator MEB-15 | Ultralum | 900-1322-02 | UV irradiation table |
| NanoDrop ND-1000 | VWR International / PEQLAB Biotechnologie GmbH | N/A | UV spectrophotometer |
| TKAX-CAD with 0.2 μm capsule filter | Unity Lab Services | N/A | water deionization and filter unit |
| Name | Company | Catalog number | Comments |
| Software | |||
| MFP software on Igor Pro | Asylum Research | N/A | AFM software |
| ImageJ (open source Java image processing) | NIH Image | N/A | Image analysis software |
| Excel (Microsoft Office) | Microsoft Corporation | N/A | data analysis software |
| Origin9 / Origin2016 | OriginLab Corporation | N/A | statistical data analysis and graphing software |
| Name | Company | Catalog number | Comments |
| Material | |||
| OMCL-AC240TS | Olympus | OMCL-AC240TS | AFM cantilevers |
| grade V-5 muscovite | SPI Supplies | 1805 | mica sheets |
| Amicon Ultra 0.5ml 50k Ultracell | Millipore Ireland Ltd. | UFC505096 | centrifuge filters |
| NucleoSpin Extract II | Macherey-Nagel GmbH | 740 609.250 | Agarose gel extraction kit |
| Rotilabo cellulose paper type 111A | Carl Roth GmbH | AP59.1 | AFM deposition blotting paper |
| Anatop 25 (0.02 μm) | Whatman GmbH | 6809-2102 | syringe filter |
| SSpI, BspQI | New England Biolabs (NEB) | R0132, R0712 | restriction enzymes for DNA substrate preparation |
| XhoI, BglII | R0146, R0144 | restriction enzymes for DNA preparation controls | |
| nicking restriction enzyme Nt.BstNBI | New England Biolabs (NEB) | R0607 | nickase |
| T4 DNA ligase | New England Biolabs (NEB) | M0202S | Ligase |
| Tris, HEPES | Carl Roth GmbH | 4855, 9105 | buffer chemicals |
| NaCl, MgCl2, KCl, MgAcetate | Carl Roth GmbH | 3957, HN03, HN02, P026 | salt chemicals |
| NaAc | Sigma-Aldrich Chemie GmbH | 32318 | salt chemicals |
| DTT, TCEP, EDTA | 6908, HN95, 8040 | chemicals/reagents | |
| agarose, acetic acid, HCl | Carl Roth GmbH | 2267, 3738, K025 | reagents |
| ATPƔS | Jena Bioscience | NU-406 | nucleotides |
| ATP | Carl Roth GmbH | K054 | nucleotides |
| oligonucleotide #1 in Table 1 | Biomers | custom | complementary DNA oligonucleotide |
| oligonucleotides #2, #3, and #6 in Table 1 | Integrated DNA Technologies (IDT) | custom | fluorescein containing oligonucleotides |
| oligonucleotides #4 and #5 in Table 1 | private (available from e.g. TriLink or GlenResearch) | CPD containing oligonucleotides | |
| SafeSeal reaction tube 0.5 ml and 1.5 ml | Sarstedt | 72.704 and 72.706 | incubation tubes |
| GeneRuler 1 kb | Thermo Scientific | SM0311 | DNA ladder |
| 6x concentrate gel loading dye purple | New England Biolabs (NEB) | 51406 | DNA loading dye |
| Midori Green | Nippon Genetics Europe GmbH | 999MG28055 | DNA stain |
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