Measurement of Total Calcium in Neurons by Electron Probe X-ray Microanalysis

Summary

This paper describes the application of cryoanalytical electron microscopy to the quantitative measurement of total calcium content and distribution at subcellular resolution in physiologically defined biological specimens.

Abstract

In this article the tools, techniques, and instruments appropriate for quantitative measurements of intracellular elemental content using the technique known as electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) are described. Intramitochondrial calcium is a particular focus because of the critical role that mitochondrial calcium overload plays in neurodegenerative diseases. The method is based on the analysis of X-rays generated in an electron microscope (EM) by interaction of an electron beam with the specimen. In order to maintain the native distribution of diffusible elements in electron microscopy specimens, EPMA requires "cryofixation" of tissue followed by the preparation of ultrathin cryosections. Rapid freezing of cultured cells or organotypic slice cultures is carried out by plunge freezing in liquid ethane or by slam freezing against a cold metal block, respectively. Cryosections nominally 80 nm thick are cut dry with a diamond knife at ca. -160 °C, mounted on carbon/pioloform-coated copper grids, and cryotransferred into a cryo-EM using a specialized cryospecimen holder. After visual survey and location mapping at ≤-160 °C and low electron dose, frozen-hydrated cryosections are freeze-dried at -100 °C for ~30 min. Organelle-level images of dried cryosections are recorded, also at low dose, by means of a slow-scan CCD camera and subcellular regions of interest selected for analysis. X-rays emitted from ROIs by a stationary, focused, high-intensity electron probe are collected by an energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectrometer, processed by associated electronics, and presented as an X-ray spectrum, that is, a plot of X-ray intensity vs. energy. Additional software facilitates: 1) identification of elemental components by their "characteristic" peak energies and fingerprint; and 2) quantitative analysis by extraction of peak areas/background. This paper concludes with two examples that illustrate typical EPMA applications, one in which mitochondrial calcium analysis provided critical insight into mechanisms of excitotoxic injury and another that revealed the basis of ischemia resistance.

Introduction

Calcium ions are arguably the most important and versatile cell signaling entity in biology, playing an essential role in normal processes as diverse as synaptic transmission and gene expression. On the other hand, calcium is equally important in cell death. In particular, calcium deregulation is a key factor in neuronal injury in stroke, Parkinson's, Alzheimer's and other neurodegenerative diseases^3,5. Thus, it is critically important to understand quantitatively how calcium is distributed within cells, and how this changes following physiological or pathophysiological stimuli. This goal is complicated by the fact that calcium is dynamically distri....

Protocol

The approach described here was developed using specific instruments, tools and software. Because labs will not be using the same experimental setup the approach is generalized where possible.

1. Rapid Freezing

The analytical method to be described is absolutely dependent on cryogenic approaches for: 1) the "cryofixation" of cells or tissues in a manner that quantitatively preserves the distribution of diffusible tissue components and chemical elements as they were in live cells at the instant of freezing; and 2) the preparation of ultrathin cryosections suitable for imaging and analysis in a TEM. These tec....

Results

Brain cells typically sustain excitotoxic injury as a result of the pathological neurotransmitter release that occurs under ischemic conditions. EPMA was critical to discovering how the ability of neuronal mitochondria to sequester massive amounts of calcium underlies the mechanism of injury. The electron micrograph in Figure 3 illustrates the appearance of mitochondria in freeze-dried cryosections of cultured hippocampal neurons rapidly frozen after 30 min exposure to an excitotoxic stimulus (100 μM NMD.......

Discussion

The electron microscope-based analytical method presented here allows for the detection, identification, and quantitation of several elements of biological interest, including Na, K, P, and especially Ca. These analyses can be carried out at subcellular, i.e., intra-organelle, resolution owing to the ability to locate and identify structures of interest in high-quality images of cryosections prepared from rapidly frozen specimens. Note that no staining is required to record electron images comparable in structur.......

Materials

List of materials used in this article

Name	Company	Catalog Number	Comments
REAGENTS/MATERIALS
Thermanox plastic coverslips	Thermo Fischer Scientific	72280
Culture inserts	BD Falcon	353090	For 6-well plates
Cryopins	Leica Microsystems	16701952	Grooved
Wood applicators	EM Sciences	72300
Folding EM grids	Ted Pella	4GC100/100	100 mesh
Indium foil	Alfa Aesar	13982	0.25 mm thick
EQUIPMENT
Plunge freezing device	Leica Microsystems	KF-80
Slam freezing device	LifeCell	CF-100
Ultramicrotome	Leica Microsystems	UC6
Cryoattachment for microtome	Leica Microsystems	FC6
Diamond cryotrimming tool	Diatome	Cryotrim 45
Diamond cryoknife	Diatome	Cryo 35
Antistatic device	Diatome	Hauf Static Line
Cryo electron microscope	Carl Zeiss Microscopy	EM912 Omega
EM cryo specimen holder	Gatan	CT3500
Slow-scan CCD camera, 2k x 2k	Troendle (TRS)	Sharpeye
Image acquisition software	Olympus SIS	iTEM suite
ED x-ray detector	Oxford Instruments	Linksystem Pentafet
Pulse Processor	Oxford Instruments	XP-3
PCI backplane card	4pi Systems	Spectral Engine II
Desktop computer	Apple	Any OS9-compatible model
X-ray analysis software	NIST	DTSA, DTSA II
Spreadsheet software	Microsoft	Excel
The CF100 is no longer sold commercially, although the machine is available at many academic facilities, and complete machines or parts can be found on-line. A video tutorial for the CT3500 cryotransfer holder is available at http://www.gatan.com/files/Movies/CT3500_Cryo_transfer_holder.mp4. The SEII is obsolete; the Universal Spectral Engine Is a later, PC-compatible product with comparable functionality. 4pi has ceased manufacturing and sales but still provides technical customer support. Used systems are often found online. The original DTSA is now obsolete. NIST offers in the public domain an updated successor, DTSA II 12 (http://www.nist.gov/mml/mmsd/software.cfm)