Laboratorie Uppskattning av Net Trofiska Transfer Effektivitetsvinster av PCB till Lake Trout (<em> Salve namaycush</em>) Från sitt byte
Summary
En teknik för laboratorie uppskattning av netto trofisk överföring effektivitet polyklorerade bifenyler (PCB) kongener till fiskätande fisk från sina byten presenteras. För att maximera tillämpningen av laboratorieresultaten på området bör det fiskätande fisk matas bytesfiskar som vanligtvis äts i fält.
Abstract
En teknik för laboratorie uppskattning av netto trofisk överföringseffektivitet (γ) för polyklorerade bifenyler (PCB) kongener till fiskätande fisk från sina byten beskrivs här. Under en 135-dagars laboratorieexperiment, matas vi böckling (Coregonus hoyi) som hade fångats i Lake Michigan till insjööring (Salvelinus namaycush) förvaras i åtta laboratorietankar. Böckling är ett naturligt byte för insjööring. I fyra av de tankar, var en relativt hög flödeshastighet som används för att säkerställa en relativt hög aktivitet av insjööring, medan en låg flödeshastighet användes i de andra fyra tankar, vilket möjliggör låg insjööring aktivitet. På en tank-för-tank basis, var mängden mat som äts vid sjön öring på varje dag av experimentet registreras. Varje sjö öring vägdes vid början och slutet av försöket. Fyra till nio insjööring från vardera av de åtta stridsvagnar offrades i början av experimentet, och alla 10 insjööring kvar i var och en av tankarna var euthanized vid slutet av experimentet. Vi bestämdes koncentrationer av 75 PCB-kongener i sjön öring vid början av experimentet i sjön öring vid slutet av experimentet, och i böcklingar matas till sjön öring under experimentet. Utifrån dessa mätningar var γ beräknas för var och en av 75 PCB i varje av de åtta stridsvagnar. Genomsnittlig γ beräknades för var och en av de 75 PCB för både aktiv och inaktiv insjööring. Eftersom experimentet upprepades i åtta stridsvagnar, standardfelet om menar γ kunde uppskattas. Resultaten från denna typ av experiment är användbara i riskbedömningsmodeller för att förutsäga framtida risker för människor och djur som äter förorenad fisk under olika scenarier av miljöförorening.
Introduction
Of all of the factors affecting the rate at which fish accumulate contaminants, the efficiency with which fish retain contaminants from the food that they eat is one of the most important1-3. Risk assessment models have been developed to predict future risks to both people and wildlife eating contaminated fish under various scenarios of environmental contamination, and the reliability of these predictions critically depends on the accuracy of the estimates of the efficiency at which fish retain contaminants from their food4.
The efficiency with which the contaminant in the food ingested by the predator is transported through the gut wall is known as gross trophic transfer efficiency5. A portion of the quantity of the contaminant transported through the gut wall of the predator may eventually be lost through depuration and/or metabolic transformation. The efficiency with which the contaminant in the food ingested by the predator is retained by the predator, including any losses due to elimination and metabolic transformation, is known as net trophic transfer efficiency6.
Gross trophic transfer efficiency of organic contaminants to fish from their prey appears to vary with the contaminant’s chemical properties, including lipid affiliation as measured by the octanol-water partition coefficient, Kow3,7. According to an empirical relationship developed by Thomann3, gross trophic transfer efficiency is relatively high when log Kow is equal to a value between 5 and 6. Gross trophic transfer efficiency declines exponentially at a rate of 50% per unit of log Kow as log Kow increases from 6 to 10, according to the Thomann3 relationship.
Nevertheless, the gross and net trophic transfer efficiencies of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners to fish from their prey do not appear to follow the Thomann3 relationship in most cases. Although the trophic transfer efficiencies of PCB congeners to lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis) from its food followed the relationship proposed by Thomann8, trophic transfer efficiencies of PCB congeners were either just weakly related or not related at all to log Kow for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)9, rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)10, coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch)11, and northern pike (Esox lucius)11.
The overall goal of this study was to present a laboratory technique for estimating the net trophic transfer efficiencies of PCB congeners to a piscivorous fish from its prey. Lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) was chosen as the piscivorous fish for our experiment because lake trout are relatively easy to maintain in laboratory tanks. Bloater (Coregonus hoyi) was selected as the prey fish to be fed to the lake trout because bloater is eaten by lake trout in its natural setting12. In addition, we determined whether the net trophic transfer efficiencies for lake trout estimated from our laboratory experiment followed the Thomann3 relationship. We also determined whether the degree of activity by the lake trout had a significant effect on net trophic transfer efficiency (γ) of the PCB congeners. Activity by lake trout in the Laurentian Great Lakes is believed to have recently increased because changes in the food webs have caused lake trout to allocate more energy toward searching for food13. Lake trout were forced to exercise in one set of tanks by subjecting these lake trout to relatively high flow rates, whereas the other lake trout were permitted to remain relatively inactive by subjecting them to relatively low flow rates. Finally, the specific details of our laboratory procedure that need to be carefully followed to ensure the highest degree of accuracy in the γ estimates and to make the laboratory results applicable to the field are discussed, as well as future directions for research building on our laboratory technique. Net trophic transfer efficiency can be estimated both in the laboratory and in the field, and advantages and disadvantages are associated with both approaches. Accuracy in the estimate of γ depends on the accuracy of the estimate of food consumption. The amount of food eaten by fish in the laboratory can be accurately determined when proper protocols are followed, whereas the amount of food eaten by fish in the field is typically estimated via bioenergetics modeling. Use of bioenergetics modeling to derive the amount of food eaten has the potential to introduce a substantial amount of uncertainty into the estimates of food consumption. Fish bioenergetics models have been shown to estimate food consumption with no detectable bias for the case of lake trout14,15, but considerable bias in bioenergetics model estimates of food consumption has been detected for the case of lake whitefish15,16. On the other hand, estimates of net trophic transfer efficiency estimated in the laboratory may not be applicable to the field due to a difference in feeding rates between the laboratory and the field17. Evidence from both the laboratory and the field suggest that feeding rate can influence γ14,17.
The methodology used in the present study for estimating γ in the laboratory is applicable to situations where the predator fish is fed prey fish, and the amount of prey fish eaten by the predator can be accurately tracked. To accomplish this, the experimenter must weigh all of the food before placement in the tank; and the experimenter must be able to remove all of the uneaten food from the tank, and then weigh the uneaten food. In addition, an adequate suite of mixers and blenders should be available to obtain a sufficient degree of homogenization of the samples of both predator and prey fish. Finally, the gas chromatography – mass spectrometry instrumentation used to determine the PCB congener concentrations must be capable of detecting and quantifying individual PCB congeners at relatively low concentrations.
Protocol
Representative Results
Discussion
För de mest noggranna uppskattningar av γ måste försöksledaren kunna exakt spåra både mängden mat placeras i var och en av tankarna och mängden matrester i vardera av tankarna under loppet av experimentet. För att åstadkomma detta, måste försöksledaren att kunna ta bort alla av matrester från tankarna och noggrant bestämma dess vikt. Förutom exakt spårning av livsmedlet faktiskt ätit av rovfiskar, kan noggrann uppskattning av γ också beroende av en omfattande hela experimentet. Med tanke på att all…
Disclosures
The authors have nothing to disclose.
Acknowledgements
This work was funded, in part, by the Great Lakes Fishery Commission and the Annis Water Resources Institute. Use of trade, product, or firm names does not imply endorsement by the U. S. Government. This article is Contribution 1867 of the U. S. Geological Survey Great Lakes Science Center.
Materials
| Name | Company | Catalog Number | Comments |
| 870-L fiberglass tanks | Frigid Units | RT-430-1 | |
| 2,380-L fiberglass tanks | Frigid Units | RT-630-1 | |
| Tricaine methanesulfonate (Finquel) | Argent Chemical Laboratories, Inc. | C-FINQ-UE-100G | Eugenol could also be used as an anesthetic. |
| Ashland chef knife | Chicago Cutlery | SKU 1106336 | |
| Cutting board | Williams-Sonoma | 3863586 | |
| Hobart verical mixer (40 quart) | Hobart Corporation | ||
| 1.9-L food processor | Robot Coupe, Inc. | RSI 2Y1 | |
| Polyethylene bags (various sizes) | Arcan Inc. | ||
| I-Chem jars | I-Chem | 220-0125 | |
| Top-load electronic balance | Mettler Toledo | Mettler PM 6000 | |
| Sodium sulfate, anhydrous – granular | EMD | SX0760E-3 | |
| Glass extraction thimbles (45 mm x 130 mm) | Wilmad-Lab Glass | LG-7070-114 | |
| Teflon boiling chips | Chemware | 919120 | |
| Rapid Vap nitrogen sample concentrator | Labconco | 7910000 | |
| N-Vap nitrogen concentrator | Organomation | 112 | |
| Soxhlet extraction glassware (500 mL) | Wilmad-Lab Glass | LG-6900-104 | |
| Hexane | Burdick & Jackson | Cat. 211-4 | |
| Dichloromethane | Burdick & Jackson | Cat. 300-4 | |
| Silica gel | BDH | Cat. BDH9004-1KG | |
| Labl Line 5000 mult-unit extraction heater | Lab Line Instruments | ||
| Agilent 5973 GC/MS with chemical ionization | Agilent | 5973N | |
| Internal standard solution | Cambridge Isotope Laboratories | EC-1410-1.2 | |
| PCB congener calibration standards | Accustandard | C-CSQ-SET | |
| DB-XLB column (60m x 0.25mm, 0.25 micron) | Agilent/ J&W | 122-1262 |
References
- Madenjian, C. P., Carpenter, S. R., Rand, P. S. Why are the PCB concentrations of salmonine individuals from the same lake so highly variable?. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 51 (4), 800-807 (1994).
- Madenjian, C. P., et al. Net trophic transfer efficiency of PCBs to Lake Michigan coho salmon from their prey. Environmental Science and Technology. 32 (20), 3063-3067 (1998).
- Thomann, R. V. Bioaccumulation model of organic chemical distribution in aquatic food chains. Environmental Science and Technology. 23 (6), 699-707 (1989).
- Calabrese, E. J., Baldwin, L. A. . Performing ecological risk assessments. , (1993).
- Madenjian, C. P., et al. Variation in net trophic transfer efficiencies among 21 PCB congeners. Environmental Science and Technology. 33 (21), 3768-3773 (1999).
- Jackson, L. J., Schindler, D. E. Field estimates of net trophic transfer of PCBs from prey fishes to Lake Michigan salmonids. Environmental Science and Technology. 30 (6), 1861-1865 (1996).
- Gobas, F. A. P. C., Muir, D. C. G., Mackay, D. Dynamics of dietary bioaccumulation and faecal elimination of hydrophobic organic chemicals in fish. Chemosphere. 17 (5), 943-962 (1988).
- Madenjian, C. P., O’Connor, D. V., Rediske, R. R., O’Keefe, J. P., Pothoven, S. A. Net trophic transfer efficiencies of polychlorinated biphenyl congeners to lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis) from their food. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 27 (3), 631-636 (2008).
- Isosaarl, P., Kiviranta, H., Lie, &. #. 2. 1. 6. ;., Lundebye, A. K., Ritchie, G., Vartiainen, T. Accumulation and distribution of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin, dibenzofuran, and polychlorinated biphenyl congeners in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 23 (7), 1672-1679 (2004).
- Buckman, A. H., Brown, S. B., Hoekstra, P. F., Solomon, K. R., Fisk, A. T. Toxicokinetics of three polychlorinated biphenyl technical mixtures in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 23 (7), 1725-1736 (2004).
- Burreau, S., Axelman, J., Broman, D., Jakobsson, E. Dietary uptake in pike (Esox lucius) of some polychlorinated biphenyls, polychlorinated naphthalenes and polybrominated diphenyl ethers administered in natural diet. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 16 (12), 2508-2513 (1997).
- Madenjian, C. P., DeSorcie, T. J., Stedman, R. M. Ontogenic and spatial patterns in diet and growth of lake trout in Lake Michigan. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 127 (2), 236-252 (1998).
- Paterson, G., Whittle, D. M., Drouillard, K. G., Haffner, G. D. Declining lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) energy density: are there too many salmonid predators in the Great Lakes?. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 66 (6), 919-932 (2009).
- Madenjian, C. P., O’Connor, D. V., Nortrup, D. A. A new approach toward evaluation of fish bioenergetics models. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 57 (5), 1025-1032 (2000).
- Madenjian, C. P., Pothoven, S. A., Kao, Y. C. Reevaluation of lake trout and lake whitefish bioenergetics models. Journal of Great Lakes Research. 39 (2), 358-364 (2013).
- Madenjian, C. P., et al. Evaluation of a lake whitefish bioenergetics model. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 135 (1), 61-75 (2006).
- Madenjian, C. P., O’Connor, D. V., Chernyak, S. M., Rediske, R. R., O’Keefe, J. P. Evaluation of a chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) bioenergetics model. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 61 (4), 627-635 (2004).
- Madenjian, C. P., David, S. R., Rediske, R. R., O’Keefe, J. P. Net trophic transfer efficiencies of polychlorinated biphenyl congeners to lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) from its prey. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 31 (12), 2821-2827 (2012).
- Madenjian, C. P., O’Connor, D. V. Laboratory evaluation of a lake trout bioenergetics model. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 128 (5), 802-814 (1999).
- Ballschmiter, K., Bacher, R., Mennel, A., Fischer, R., Riehle, U., Swerev, M. The determination of chlorinated biphenyls, chlorinated dibenzodioxins, and chlorinated dibenzofurans by GC-MS. HRC Journal of High Resolution Chromatography. 15 (4), 260-270 (1992).
- Madenjian, C. P., David, S. R., Pothoven, S. A. Effects of activity and energy budget balancing algorithm on laboratory performance of a fish bioenergetics model. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 141 (5), 1328-1337 (2012).
- Lieb, A. J., Bills, D. D., Sinnhuber, R. O. Accumulation of dietary polychlorinated biphenyls (Aroclor 1254) by rainbow trout. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 22 (4), 638-642 (1974).
- Niimi, A. J., Oliver, B. G. Biological half-lives of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners in whole fish and muscle of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 40 (9), 1388-1394 (1983).
- Gobas, F. A. P. C., Wilcockson, J. B., Russell, R. W., Haffner, G. D. Mechanism of biomagnification in fish under laboratory and field conditions. Environmental Science and Technology. 33 (1), 133-141 (1999).
- Dmitrovic, J., Chan, S. C. Determination of polychlorinated biphenyl congeners in human milk by gas chromatography – negative chemical ionization mass spectrometry after sample clean-up by solid-phase extraction. Journal of Chromatography B. 778 (1-2), 147-155 (2002).
- Zorn, M. E., Gibbons, R. D., Sonzogni, W. C. Weighted least-squares approach to calculating limits of detection and quantification by modeling variability as a function of concentration. Analytical Chemistry. 69 (15), 3069-3075 (1997).
