जाग चूहे में इंट्रा-मौखिक Tastant प्रशासन के दौरान फास्ट स्कैन चक्रीय Voltammetry के साथ तेजी से डोपामिन गतिशीलता की परीक्षा
Summary
Rapid fluctuations in extracellular dopamine (DA) mediate both reward processing and motivated behavior in mammals. This manuscript describes the combined use of fast scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) and intra-oral tastant administration to determine how tastants alter rapid dopamine release in awake, freely moving rats.
Abstract
Rapid, phasic dopamine (DA) release in the mammalian brain plays a critical role in reward processing, reinforcement learning, and motivational control. Fast scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) is an electrochemical technique with high spatial and temporal (sub-second) resolution that has been utilized to examine phasic DA release in several types of preparations. In vitro experiments in single-cells and brain slices and in vivo experiments in anesthetized rodents have been used to identify mechanisms that mediate dopamine release and uptake under normal conditions and in disease models. Over the last 20 years, in vivo FSCV experiments in awake, freely moving rodents have also provided insight of dopaminergic mechanisms in reward processing and reward learning. One major advantage of the awake, freely moving preparation is the ability to examine rapid DA fluctuations that are time-locked to specific behavioral events or to reward or cue presentation. However, one limitation of combined behavior and voltammetry experiments is the difficulty of dissociating DA effects that are specific to primary rewarding or aversive stimuli from co-occurring DA fluctuations that mediate reward-directed or other motor behaviors. Here, we describe a combined method using in vivo FSCV and intra-oral infusion in an awake rat to directly investigate DA responses to oral tastants. In these experiments, oral tastants are infused directly to the palate of the rat – bypassing reward-directed behavior and voluntary drinking behavior – allowing for direct examination of DA responses to tastant stimuli.
Introduction
Phasic DA release plays an important role in mediating reward-directed behavior [1-3]. However, isolating and studying how a primary reward alters phasic DA release is often complicated by co-occurring behavioral or cognitive processes that are also capable of altering phasic DA release – such as decision making processes or reward-directed motor behavior to acquire the reward. In the current work, we isolate phasic DA responses to tastants through the use of in vivo fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) combined with tastant delivery through intraoral cannulae. This technique bypasses choice and action and allows us to examine extracellular DA release during direct infusion of a tastant to the palate of a rat.
FSCV is an electrochemical technique with high temporal and spatial resolution, permitting measurements of DA release in a discrete local area (approximately 100 µm) on a sub-second scale (10 Hz resolution). The combination of intra-oral delivery and FSCV provides the advantage of observing rapid, ‘real-time’ DA responses to a tastant, which cannot be examined using conventional microdialysis methods. Furthermore, phasic DA release in response to either rewards or reward-associated cues occurs at concentrations between 20-100 nM, which is above the 10-20 nM detection threshold for FSCV [4]. The high spatial resolution of FSCV also permits recording from sub-regions of small brain areas, such as the nucleus accumbens core (NAc). Thus, FSCV combined with intraoral infusions of tastants is an ideal model for studying how tastants or other stimuli alter phasic DA release in an awake, behaving animals. Indeed, these techniques have permitted experiments investigating how rewarding and aversive tastants alter extracellular DA release [5].
Over the last decade, FSCV analyses have been successfully combined with intravenous drug delivery [6] and rat self-administration paradigms [7, 8] to identify the role of phasic DA mechanisms in drug addiction models. In addition, combined intraoral delivery with FSCV has been used to examine how tastant cues paired with cocaine availability modulate phasic DA release and behavioral responses that reflect emotional affect [3]. This combined intraoral and FSCV methodology can also be powerfully utilized to examine phasic DA responses to flavorants, such as menthol and oral sweeteners, that are added to cigarettes and dissolvable tobacco products [9-11]. Although many of the flavorants added to tobacco products are appetitive [9-11], it is unknown if these flavorants increase phasic DA release in a manner consistent with a rewarding hedonic valence. Indeed, flavorants added to cigarettes and to dissolvable tobacco products may have direct effects on the DA reward system and may act through dopaminergic mechanisms to influence the rewarding valence of cigarettes and other tobacco products. Thus, intraoral delivery combined with FSCV can provide new understanding on how flavorants modulate rapid DA release. The use of combined intra-oral and in vivo FSCV methodology, and the data obtained from such studies, can also facilitate future studies to determine how flavorants and nicotine interact to alter DA signaling and to potentially modulate nicotine reinforcement. Further, the data gained from such studies can be used to inform regulatory decisions about tobacco product flavorants.
Protocol
Representative Results
Discussion
FSCV के साथ संयुक्त Intraoral tastant वितरण मौखिक flavorants करने के लिए "वास्तविक समय" दा प्रतिक्रियाओं का विश्लेषण परमिट। सफल डीए मापन के लिए आवश्यक हैं कि प्रोटोकॉल में तीन महत्वपूर्ण कदम उठाए हैं। सबसे पहले, मौखिक ?…
Disclosures
The authors have nothing to disclose.
Acknowledgements
Research reported in this publication was supported by an NSF Graduate Research Fellowship (RJW) and by the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health and FDA Center for Tobacco Products (CTP) under Award Number P50DA036151(EJN and NAA). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official view of the National Institutes of Health.
Materials
| Name of Material/ Equipment | Company | Catalog Number | Comments/Description |
| Stimulating electrode | PlasticsOne | MS303/2-A/SPC | (Stimulating electrode) when ordering, request a 22mm cut below pedastal |
| Cannula for electrode | BioAnalytical Systems | MD-2251 | |
| Glass Capillary | A-M systems | 624503 | |
| Carbon Fiber | Thornel | T650 | |
| Electrode puller | Narishige International | PE-22 | |
| Neurolog stimulus isolator | Digitimer Ltd. | DS4 | |
| Heat Shrink | 3M | FP-301 | |
| Insulated wires for electrodes | Squires electronics | Custom | (Wire for electrodes) L 3.000 x 1.000s x 1.000s UL1423 30/1 BLU |
| Micromanipulator | Univ. of Illinois at Chicago, Engineering Machine Shop | n/a | |
| Epoxy | ITW Devcon | 14250 | (Epoxy) "5 minute epoxy" |
| copolymer of perfluoro-3,6-dioxa-4-methyl-7octene-sulfonic acid and tetrafluoroethylene | Ion Power | LQ-1105 | "i.e. Nafion" |
| Silver Paint | GC Electronics | 22-023 | |
| Power Supply | BK Precision | 9110 | |
| Tubing for intra-oral catheters | Intramedic | 427426 | (Tubing for intra-oral catheters) PE 100, I.D.=0.86mm; O.D.=1.52mm |
| Tubing for intra-oral infusion | Fischer Scientific | 02-587-1A | (Tubing for intra-oral infusion) I.D. 1/32"; O.D. 3/32" |
| Syringe pump for flow cell | Pump Systems Inc. | NE 1000 | |
| Surgical cement | Dentsply Caulk | 675571 and 675572 | |
| Air acuatator | VICI | A60 | (Air actuator) 6 position digital valve interface |
| Digital Valve Interface | VICI | DVI | (Digital Valve Interface) 230 VAC |
| Quad Headstage | Univ. of N. Carolina, Electronics Facility | n/a | |
| UEI Power Supply | Univ. of N. Carolina, Electronics Facility | n/a | |
| UEI Breakout Box | Univ. of N. Carolina, Electronics Facility | n/a | |
| Power Supply for tastant syringe pump | Med Associates | SG-504 | |
| Tastant Syringe Pump | Med Associates | PHM-107 | |
| Tungsten Microelectrode | MicroProbes | WE30030.5A3 | |
| Silver Wire Reference with AgCl | InVivo Metric | E255A | |
| Sucrose | Sigma | 80497 | |
| Magnesium Chloride | Sigma | M8266 | |
| Sodium Chlroide | Sigma | S7653 | |
| Perchloric Acid | Sigma | 244252 | |
| Hydrochloric Acid (4M) | Sigma | 54435 | |
| Soidum Hydroxide | Sigma | 306576 | |
| Hydrogen Peroxide | Sigma | H1009 | |
| Dopamine Hydrochloride | Sigma | H8502 | |
| TarHeel HDCV Software | University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill | Must request software: click here for link to software request page |
References
- Roitman, M. F., et al. Dopamine operates as a subsecond modulator of food seeking. J Neurosci. 24 (6), 1265-1271 (2004).
- Aragona, B. J., et al. Regional specificity in the real-time development of phasic dopamine transmission patterns during acquisition of a cue-cocaine association in rats. European Journal of Neuroscience. 30 (10), 1889-1899 (2009).
- Wheeler, R. A., et al. Cocaine cues drive opposing context-dependent shifts in reward processing and emotional state. Biol Psychiatry. 69 (11), 1067-1074 (2011).
- Wickham, R. J., et al. Advances in studying phasic dopamine signaling in brain reward mechanisms. Front Biosci (Elite Ed). 5, 982-999 (2013).
- Roitman, M. F., et al. Real-time chemical responses in the nucleus accumbens differentiate rewarding and aversive stimuli). Nature Neuroscience. 11 (12), 1376-1377 (2008).
- Cheer, J. F., et al. Phasic dopamine release evoked by abused substances requires cannabinoid receptor activation. J Neurosci. 27 (4), 791-795 (2007).
- Owesson-White, C. A., et al. Neural encoding of cocaine-seeking behavior is coincident with phasic dopamine release in the accumbens core and shell. Eur J Neurosci. 30 (6), 1117-1127 (2009).
- Phillips, P. E., et al. Subsecond dopamine release promotes cocaine seeking. Nature. 422 (6932), 614-618 (2003).
- Chen, C., et al. Levels of mint and wintergreen flavorants: smokeless tobacco products vs. confectionery products. Food Chem Toxicol. 48 (2), 755-763 (2010).
- Manning, K. C., Kelly, K. J., Comello, M. L. Flavoured cigarettes, sensation seeking and adolescents’ perceptions of cigarette brands. Tob Control. 18 (6), 459-465 (2009).
- Rainey, C. L., Conder, P. A., Goodpaster, J. V. Chemical characterization of dissolvable tobacco products promoted to reduce harm. J Agric Food Chem. 59 (6), 2745-2751 (2011).
- Phillips, P. E., et al. Real-time measurements of phasic changes in extracellular dopamine concentration in freely moving rats by fast-scan cyclic voltammetry. Methods Mol Med. 79, 443-464 (2003).
- Robinson, D. L., Wightman, R. M. . Rapid Dopamine Release in Freely Moving Rats. Electrochemical Methods for Neuroscience. , (2007).
- Montague, P. R., et al. Dynamic gain control of dopamine delivery in freely moving animals. J Neurosci. 24 (7), 1754-1759 (2004).
- Heien, M. L., Johnson, M. A., Wightman, R. M. Resolving neurotransmitters detected by fast-scan cyclic voltammetry. Anal Chem. 76 (19), 5697-5704 (2004).
- Keithley, R. B., Heien, M. L., Wightman, R. M. Multivariate concentration determination using principal component regression with residual analysis. Trends Analyt Chem. 28 (9), 1127-1136 (2009).
- Keithley, R. B., Carelli, R. M., Wightman, R. M. Rank estimation and the multivariate analysis of in vivo fast-scan cyclic voltammetric data. Anal Chem. 82 (13), 5541-5551 (2010).
- Rising, J. P., et al. Healthy Young Adults: description and use of an innovative health insurance program. J Adolesc Health. 41 (4), 350-356 (2007).
- Day, J. J., et al. Associative learning mediates dynamic shifts in dopamine signaling in the nucleus accumbens. Nature Neuroscience. 10 (8), 1020-1028 (2007).
- Park, J., et al. Catecholamines in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis reciprocally respond to reward and aversion. Biol Psychiatry. 71 (4), 327-334 (2012).
- Wheeler, R. A., Carelli, R. M. The neuroscience of pleasure. Focus on ‘Ventral pallidum firing codes hedonic reward: when a bad taste turns good. J Neurophysiol. 96 (5), 2175-2176 (2006).
- Bunin, M. A., et al. Release and uptake rates of 5-hydroxytryptamine in the dorsal raphe and substantia nigra reticulata of the rat brain. J Neurochem. 70 (3), 1077-1087 (1998).
- Zimmerman, J. B., Wightman, R. M. Simultaneous electrochemical measurements of oxygen and dopamine in vivo. Anal Chem. 63 (1), 24-28 (1991).
- Levy, A., et al. A novel procedure for evaluating the reinforcing properties of tastants in laboratory rats: operant intraoral self-administration. J Vis Exp. (84), e50956 (2014).
