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Medicine

En model til simulere klinisk relevant Hypoxi i mennesker

Published: December 22, 2016 doi: 10.3791/54933

Summary

Hypoxi simulering hos mennesker er normalt udført ved at inhalere hypoxiske gasblandinger. Til denne undersøgelse blev apnø dykkere bruges til at simulere dynamisk hypoxi hos mennesker. Derudover blev fysiologiske ændringer i desaturation og re-mætningskinetik evalueret med non-invasive værktøjer som Near-Infrared-spektroskopi (NIRS) og perifer iltning mætning (SpO 2).

Introduction

Klinisk relevant akut hypoxi og samtidig hypercapni er for det meste ses hos patienter med obstruktiv søvnapnø syndrom (OSAS), akut luftvejsobstruktion eller under genoplivning. Store begrænsninger inden for OSAS og andre hypoxemiske tilstande indbefatter den begrænsede overførbar viden om patofysiologien afledt af dyreforsøg og at humane modeller er ikke-eksisterende 1. At efterligne hypoxi hos mennesker, har hypoxiske gasblandinger hidtil blevet bruges 2 - 7. Men disse betingelser er mere repræsentative for højtliggende omgivelser end af kliniske situationer, hvor hypoxi generelt ledsages af hyperkapni. For at overvåge vævsoxygenering under hjertestop og genoplivning, har dyreforsøg udført 8 for at undersøge fysiologiske kompenserende mekanismer.

Apnø-dykkere er sunde atleter i stand til at trykke på vejrtrækning impulsder er fremkaldt af lav arteriel oxygenmætning 9 og en øget pCO2 10,11. Vi undersøgte apnø dykkere for at efterligne kliniske situationer med akut hypoksi og samtidig hypercapni 12. Denne model kan anvendes til at evaluere kliniske opsætninger, forbedre den patofysiologiske forståelse af patienter med OSAS eller patologiske vejrtrækning lidelser, og afslører nye muligheder for at studere en potentiel tæller afbalanceringsmekanisme i tilfælde af apnø. Endvidere til forskellige teknikker detektere hypoxi hos mennesker kan testes for gennemførlighed og nøjagtighed i tilfælde af dynamiske hypoksi, som findes i nødsituationer (dvs., luftvejsobstruktioner, laryngospasme eller kan ikke intubere, kan ikke ventilere situationer) eller til at simulere intermitterende hypoxi hos patienter med OSAS.

Noninvasive teknikker til påvisning af hypoxi hos mennesker er begrænsede. Perifer pulsoximetri (SpO 2) er en godkendt værktøj i pre-Hospital og hospitaler til at opdage hypoxi 13. Metoden er baseret på lysabsorption af hæmoglobin. Imidlertid er SpO 2 måling begrænset til perifer arteriel iltning og kan ikke anvendes i tilfælde af pulseless elektrisk aktivitet (PEA) eller centraliseret minimal cirkulation 14. I modsætning hertil kan Near-infrarød spektroskopi anvendes til at bedømme hjernevæv iltmætning (RSO 2) i realtid under PEA, under hæmorrhagisk shock eller efter subarachnoid blødning 15-19. Dens anvendelse er i konstant vækst 20 og metodiske undersøgelser har afsløret en positiv sammenhæng mellem SpO 2 og RSO 2 3,4.

I denne undersøgelse, giver vi en model til at simulere klinisk relevant hypoxi hos mennesker og præsentere en trin-for-trin metode til at sammenligne perifere pulsoximetri og NIRS i tilfælde af de- og re-mætning. Ved at analysere fysiologiske data i tilfælde af enpnea, kan vores forståelse af counter balancing mekanismer forbedres.

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Protocol

Etik erklæring
Alle procedurer udføres i undersøgelser med humane deltagerne var i overensstemmelse med de etiske standarder i 1964 Helsinki-erklæringen og senere ændringer. Udformningen af ​​denne undersøgelse blev godkendt af de lokale etiske komité af Universitetshospitalet i Bonn, Tyskland.

BEMÆRK: Sørg for, at emner er i god og sund tilstand, fri for antihypertensiv medicin og mindst 24 timer fri for catecholamin inducerende midler som koffein eller lig stoffer.

1. Forberedelse af Test Emne

  1. Rens huden i panden med 70% alkohol for at affedte huden før NIRS elektrode positionering.
  2. Placer NIRS elektrode på højre pande ovenfor øjenbryn og til højre for midsagittal sulcus (locus frontopolar 2) til måling cerebral (= central) iltningen af ​​vævet.
  3. Evaluere stabiliteten af ​​signalet. Den RSO 2 -signal bør være konstant (7; 3%) i mindst 5 min.
  4. Til måling perifere væv iltning med NIRS (NIRS væv -electrode), placere en elektrode over midten af musculus quadriceps femoris (alternativt på underarmen). Anbring ikke elektroden over en venøs plexus eller en arterie.
  5. Placer EKG-elektroder på håret fri brystet. EKG ledninger er markeret med forskellige bogstaver. Place "R" på sternocostal hoved pectoralis major ret, "L" på sternocostal leder af pectoralis major venstre, "C" på den femte interkostalrum midten af ​​medioclavicular linje, "F" til venstre nederste ribben kant, " N "på den højre nederste ribben kant.
  6. Mål perifere pulsoximetri (SpO 2) på en fingerspids på samme ekstremitet og side, hvor NIRS vævet -electrode er placeret.
  7. Mål invasiv blodtryk (NIBP) ved anvendelse af en blodtryksmanchet. Brug det kontralaterale ekstremitet, der tillader perifer puls oximEtry der skal måles. For at få en høj tid-opløsning i blodtrykket resultater, skal du vælge et minuts interval for måling. Vælg NIBP ved at berøre skærmen og vælge "Indstillinger".
  8. Mindst 20 minutter før apnø, etablere en intravenøs linje i den mediale kubiske vene i højre eller venstre arm til at trække blodprøver på de enkelte tidspunkter under og efter apnø.
    1. Rens huden med 70% alkohol.
    2. Brug en årepresse for at hjælpe venerne bliver mere fremtrædende.
    3. Brug hud-desinfektion for at undgå infektioner og stik nålen gennem huden.
    4. Reducer indsættelse vinkel efter blod flashback ved navet kateter. Skub kateteret ind i venen.
    5. Fjern kanylen og flugter kateter med sterilt saltvand (NaCl 0,9%).

2. Dataindsamling

  1. Kalibrer det interne ur af alle skærme for at synkronisere målinger for senere behandling.
    1. Click nederste højre ur på skrivebordet, og tryk på "skift dato og klokkeslæt" i pop-up vindue.
    2. Tryk på Indstillinger menuknappen på NIRS udtænke og ændre dato og tid via menuen.
  2. Hvis du vil gemme fysiologiske data for offline analyse, indsætte monitor enhed i dockingstationen, og slut den til computeren via netværkskablet. Sørg for, at IP-adressen og undernetmasken af ​​dockingstationen er korrekt i netværksindstillingerne for at få en forbindelse. Kontakt enhedens udbyder for at få disse oplysninger.
  3. Brug en monitor enhed specifik software til at gemme målinger på computeren. Klik på "start" for at begynde optagelser og gemme resultaterne efter afslutningen af ​​målingen.
    Bemærk: På nogle enheder, data skal gemmes direkte under målingen.
    Bemærk: For fejlfinding tage sig af følgende trin: Hvis variabiliteten af NIRS væv SIGnaler er for høj, re-evaluere positionen af ​​elektroden (undgå større venøse plexus eller arterier direkte under elektroderne). De store variationer i NIRS cerebrale signaler kan også være en indirekte markør for hyperventilation af dykkere til at reducere delvis CO2. Instruer motivet ånde langsommere og med lavere tidal-mængder og revurdere signalet. Emner er tilladt at tage 3 dybe inspirationer inden endelig apnø. Undgå herunder denne periode i vurderingen af ​​baseline værdier. De første 30 sek efter maksimal inspiration er karakteriseret ved variable værdier. Brug dem ikke til analyse.

3. Apnea

  1. Har de emner hvile i mindst 15 minutter i en liggende stilling for at undgå stress inducerede ændringer i blodcirkulationen på grund af vasokonstriktion. Har individer trække vejret normalt at undgå påvirkninger af hyperventilation forårsaget vasokonstriktion. Begræns vejrtrækning frekvens til ≤ 15 vejrtrækninger / min.
  2. Tegn blodprøves for baseline analyse. Kassér de første 5 ml trukket blod for at undgå måleusikkerhed. Skyl kateteret efter hver veneblod samling med sterilt saltvand for at forhindre koagulation.
  3. Sørg for, at overvåge værdierne er usynlige for emner at undgå visuelle påvirkninger til deres apnø præstationer.
  4. Tjek hver enhed for funktionalitet og signal kvalitet. Sikre, at elektroderne ikke kan fjernes ved ufrivillige bevægelser af testpersonen ved udgangen af ​​apnø.
  5. Afslut med klare aftaler. Giv en nedtælling af de sidste 2 min verbalt. Emner skal trække vejret normalt under denne forberedelsestid. Forud for den endelige ånde 3 dybe inspirationer er tilladt. Stil emnet for at indikere den sidste inhalering af finger tegn. Apnø skal udføres så længe som muligt.
    Bemærk: Den ende af den endelige ånde angiver starten på apnø. Enden af ​​apnø er defineret som den første inspiration efter apnø.
  6. Mark vigtige begivenheder (dvs. begynder ennd slutningen af ​​apnø) elektronisk at undgå unøjagtigheder i yderligere tid analyse ved at trykke på "Event Mark Button" på NIRS-enheden.
    Bemærk: Flytning af brystet og maven fremkaldt af ufrivillige membran aktiviteter er almindelige i anden halvdel af apnø og angive kampen fase.
  7. Draw blodprøver på forskellige tidspunkter afhængig af formålet med undersøgelsen.
  8. Centrifugér blodprøver ved 1.500 xg i 10 minutter. Tag supernatanten og opbevar det ved -80 ° C til fremtidig analyse.

4. Behandling af data

  1. Behandling af data fra monitoren enhed:
    1. Åbn den gemte fil på computeren, og tryk på "start" for at analysere data.
    2. Klik på "review" for at få adgang til den tendens skærmen og vælg "indstillinger" og derefter "værktøjer" i menuen sub net maske. Tidsinterval kan ændres via "trend interval", hvis det er nødvendigt.
    3. Vælg masken "trends" og save. Åbn fil "trends" i et regnearksprogram til videre behandling.
  2. Behandling af data fra NIRS enhed:
    1. Åbn softwaren på computeren og tilslut NIRS enheden via WIFI.
    2. Overfør data fra NIRS enheden til computeren.
    3. Gem data i CSV-format.
    4. Åbn filen i et regnearksprogram til videre forarbejdning.

5. Analyser Værdier

  1. Opret et regneark med begge datasæt til at sammenligne værdierne. Identificer et tidsinterval på mindst 30 sek hvor NIRS-værdier og SpO 2 er konstante (± 3%). Tage et gennemsnit af disse værdier til at definere en basislinje-niveau.
    Bemærk: Pulsen er kendt for at ændre sig væsentligt før apnø. For at foretage yderligere analyser, er en baseline hjertefrekvens defineret på et tidspunkt punkt 30 sek efter initiering af apnø.
  2. Find startpunktet for monoton fald i RSO 2 og SpO 2
  3. Identificer startpunktet for RSO 2 og SpO 2 stigning i slutningen af apnø som en monoton stigning i værdier efter afslutning af apnø. Dette punkt er defineret som "begynde af re-mætning".
  4. Beregn tidsforskellen mellem "start apnø" og "begynde af desaturering", og de tidsforskelle mellem "slutningen af apnø" og "begynde af re-mætning" for NIRS cerebral, NIRS væv og SpO 2. Gem hvert forskel i sekunder på en separat regneark.
  5. Valgfrit: Beregn pulsvaribilitet af hver deltager i andet og det sidste minut af apnø. Dette kan afsløre oplysninger om den sympatiske / parasympatiske balance i denne stressende fase.

6. Statistisk Processing

  1. Sammenlign tidsforskelle mellem "begyndelsen af desaturering" af SpO 2, NIRS cerebral, og NIRS væv værdier. Test for Gauss fordeling af måling forskelle (fx ved hjælp af Shapiro-Wilk normalitet test for prøve størrelser mindre end 50).
  2. Hvis fordelingen af ​​måleforskelle er signifikant forskellig fra normalfordeling, bruge Wilcoxon signed rank test. Hvis der kan antages normalfordeling, overveje at bruge parret t-test.

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Representative Results

Figur 1 viser samtidige optagelser af SpO 2 og NIRS værdier (NIRS cerebral og NIRS væv) under apnø hos en patient. Samlet apnø tid var 363 sek. Efter apnø NIRS og SpO 2 værdier forblev stabil i ca. 140 sek. Et fald i SpO 2 blev opdaget efter 204 sek ved perifer SpO 2 mens et fald på NIRS cerebral blev opdaget efter 238 sek. Den laveste målte SpO 2 efter apnø var 58% og lavest målte NIRS cerebral var 46%. Ved slutningen af apnø NIRS cerebral steget efter en tidsforsinkelse på 12 sek mens SpO 2 steg efter en tidsforsinkelse på 30 sek.

I en nylig undersøgelse af ti apnø dykkere viste vi et signifikant fald i NIRS cerebrale værdier fra 71% (interval 85 - 55) til 54% (interval 74 - 24) 12 2 faldt fra 98% (fra 100 - 98) til 81% (interval 94-67). Figur 2 viser den gennemsnitlige tid forsinkelser mellem begyndelsen af apnø og fald i NIRS cerebrale versus SpO 2 værdier af disse ti dykkere. Oxygenmætning målt ved NIRS cerebral faldt betydeligt senest iltmætning på fingerspidsen målt ved SpO 2 [175 sec; SD = 50 sek versus 134 sec; SD = 29 sec; (t (9) = 2,865, p = 0,019, r 2 = 0,477)]. Dette kan tages som et tegn for forhøjet cerebral blodgennemstrømning og fortrinsret ilt forsyning af hjernevæv under apnø.

Efter genstart af respiration (Figur 2c), værdier af NIRS cerebral steget markant tidligere end SpO 2 værdier [10 sek; SD = 4 sec versus 21 sekunder SD = 4 sec (t (9) = 7,703, p <0,001, r 2 = 0,868)]. figurerne 2b 2) og over musculus quadriceps femoris (NIRS væv) under apnø. NIRS væv værdier faldt betydeligt tidligere end SpO 2 værdier [39 s; SD = 13 sek versus en forsinkelse på 125 sek; SD = 36 sek (t (6) = 4,869, p = 0,003, r 2 = 0,798)]. Denne tidsforsinkelse kan vise at perifer vasokonstriktion fører til et fald i vævsoxygenering, selv før et fald i arteriel iltmætning - visualiseret ved SpO 2 - er målelig. Der var ingen forskel i tidsforsinkelse efter genstart af respiration mellem NIRS væv og SpO 2 [NIRS væv 30 sek; SD = 16 sek versus SpO 2 27 sec; SD = 7 sek (t (6) = 0,631, p = 0,551, r 2 = 0,062)]. Dette indikerer, at den observerede tidsforsinkelse ikke skyldes de forskellige enheder selv.

2 -, NIRS væv - og NIRS cerebral -baseline værdier til 100% (figur 3). At sammenligne individuelle apnø varighed var samlet apnø varigheden af ​​hver genstand også sat til 100%. 12

figur 1
Figur 1: Time-forløb NIRS, SpO 2, og puls (HR) under Apnea. Rådata fra en deltager vises. Total apnø-tid var 363 sek. Om udviste et tidligere fald i SpO 2 end i cerebral RSO 2. Klik her for at se en større version af dette tal.

Figur 2 />
Figur 2: Time Forsinkelser i løbet Apnea og Genstart af respiration. a) Mean tidsforsinkelse mellem begyndelsen af apnø og fald i NIRS cerebral versus SpO 2 værdier; b) Gennemsnitlig tid forsinkelse mellem begyndelsen af apnø og fald i NIRS væv versus SpO 2 værdier; c) Mean tidsforsinkelse mellem genstart af respiration og en stigning på NIRS cerebral versus SpO 2 værdier; d) Mean tidsforsinkelse mellem genstart af respiration og en stigning på NIRS væv versus SpO 2 værdier. Fejlsøjler indikerer standardafvigelser på middelværdien. Data og tal fra Eichhorn et al. 2015 12. Klik her for at se en større version af dette tal.

1 "> Figur 3
Figur 3: Temporal Progression af Normalized SpO 2, NIRS cerebral og NIRS væv Værdier: ækvilibrere individuelle variationer i apnøtid blev alle apnea gange standardiseret til 100%. Således variationerne i de tre plottede parametre tildeles de relative apnø gange. Basisværdier måles før apnø blev defineret som 100%. Fejlsøjler indikerer standardafvigelser på middelværdien. Data og tal fra Eichhorn et al. 2015 12. Klik her for at se en større version af dette tal.

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Discussion

Den samlede apnø tid er primært forårsaget af lunge størrelse og ilt forbrug per minut og påvirket af en persons evne til at modstå vejrtrækningsrefleks forårsaget af stigende pCO2 eller faldende pO 2. Apnø dykkere er uddannet til at maksimere deres ånde-hold varighed og er vant til at gøre det i maksimal inspiration. Derfor tiden indtil hypoxi er påviselige adskiller mellem individer og afhænger af emnet fysiske tilstand og træning status og måske endda variere fra deres daglige stat og vilje til at modstå vejrtrækningsrefleks. Fagets stressniveau kan reduceres ved detaljeret undervisning af protokol trin og en rolig omgivende miljø.

Der er mange faktorer, der påvirker den samlede apnø tid, hvilket betyder, at testmiljø bør standardiseres for at få resultater, der er pålidelig og gentagelig. Hvis forskere interesseret i at studere catecholamin increaselv, eller sympatisk nerveaktivitet, stoffer der påvirker både (dvs., koffein, nikotin, fødevarer som bananer, nødder, eller nogen medicinske stoffer som monoamin oxidase (MAO) hæmmere, etc.) bør undgås. Også den intravenøse linie bør etableres mindst 20 minutter før apnø. A forsøgspersonernes stressniveau vil hovedsagelig påvirke catecholamin-niveauer og kunne forfalske forskernes resultater af blod analyse. Generelt bør forskere skabe baseline niveauer af hver genstand til at normalisere resultater på grund af de store inter-individuelle forskelle.

Ikke-invasive målinger af vævsoxygenering af NIRS teknologi anvender semi-kvantitative ændringer i iltet og deoxygenated hæmoglobin 21. Anvendelsen af NIRS vokser konstant 20 og det kan detektere mætning af cerebral og perifer væv, uafhængig af pulserende blodgennemstrømning. NIRS værdier afhænger af mængden af ​​venøse og arterielle skibe placeret under NIRS-elektroder. NIRS værdier kan derfor afvige væsentligt afhængigt af mængden af venøse versus arterielle fartøjer under elektroden. Desuden vil placering og kontakttryk påvirke pålideligheden af ​​værdier. Værdier bør kontrolleres for stabilitet, før du starter målingen. Hvis NIRS signaler varierer i løbet af baseline-målinger, udskifte elektroderne eller kontrollere for kontakt total hud. For fortolkning af NIRS resultater, relativ de- eller forøgelse af værdier i forhold til baseline værdier den skal bruges (ikke absolut).

På grund af den fysiske belastning af en maksimal holde vejret, antallet af apnøer pr emne er begrænset. De forberedelse protokoller bør være ens for hvert emne, og alle enheder skal være dobbelt-kontrolleret før de anvendes. Du må ikke ændre protokollen i en kohorte. Standardiserede opsætninger er obligatoriske for at skabe resultater, der er reproducerbare. Selvom hyperventilation før maksimal ånde hold sænker arteriel CO 2 niveauer og delays vejrtrækning stimulus, det påvirker også cerebral autoregulering og vasomotoriske reaktivitet 22. Aktiv hyperventilation bør undgås for at minimere forstyrrende virkninger ved emnet.

Det overordnede mål med denne model er at simulere hypoxi hos mennesker ved indånding hold. Derfor kan yderligere måling enheder etableres for at få mere detaljerede oplysninger om blodtryk (dvs. invasiv blodtryksmåling) eller sympatisk nerveaktivitet. blodtryksmålinger kan bruges til at estimere byrden af ​​langvarig apnø til skibsfarten. EKG-signaler kan anvendes til at beregne slag-til-slag variation i RR-interval eller til at detektere hjertearytmi. Desuden kan cortisol-niveauer i spyt eller catecholamin-niveauer 29 i blod-prøver måles på forskellige tidspunkter under og efter apnø. Kinetik disse værdier åbner op for en række mulige studiemuligheder. Stadig, en pålidelig detektering af hypoxi ernødvendige for at sikre hypoxiske tilstande forårsaget af apnø. Værdier målt af forskellige enheder, men i det samme apnø session kan sammenlignes direkte. Tidsforskelle (f.eks indtil blodtrykket stiger, desaturation starter, etc.) fra forskellige individer skal normaliseres til den samlede apnø tid.

Det respiratoriske refleks er en af ​​de stærkeste stimulus af det menneskelige legeme. Akut hypoxi og hyperkapni er derfor kun ses hos patienter med patologier (dvs. OSA, nødsituationer, laryngospasmer, CPR, etc.). Overvejende uforudset, hypoxi er svært at opdage, altid præget af en udløsende begivenhed og vanskeligt at vurdere på grund af en forsøgspersonernes co-morbiditet. Selv om den samlede apnøtid af dykkere og patienter, der undergår hypoksi ikke bør sammenlignes på grund af de helt forskellige startbetingelser, til humane kompenserende mekanismer undgå skade på hjernen i tilfælde af hypoxia er identiske 23 -28. En udvidet frivillig holde vejret tømmes også kroppens ilt-lagring og øger et individs pCO 2 29. Apnø dykkere blev vist at tilvejebringe pålidelige resultater under simulering af dynamisk hypoxi hos mennesker 12. Vi målte minimum cerebral mætning kun lidt højere end værdierne set hos patienter under hjertestop (42,2 ± 10,7% 15 og 37,2 ± 17,0% 14). Dette indikerer, at vores model er i stand til at efterligne klinisk relevant hypoxi. Selv hypoxi forårsager alvorlige sundhedsproblemer, de slave fysiologiske mekanismer er endnu ikke helt forstået en og indtil nu ikke fandtes nogen relevant klinisk menneskelig model til at simulere akut hypoxi hos mennesker. Brug sunde apnø dykkere som en klinisk relevant model til at simulere hypoxi og hyperkapni hos mennesker rummer stort potentiale for fremtidige undersøgelser. Denne model gør det muligt for forskerne at undersøge den kompenserende mekanisme til at undgå hypoxiskskade på en reproducerbar menneskelig model. Det giver en klinisk relevant simulering af hypoxiske nødsituationer såsom laryngospasme eller "ikke kan ventilere - kan ikke intubere". Det kan bruges til at bevise gennemførligheden af ​​nye invasive eller ikke-invasive værktøjer til måling menneskelige hypoxi. Endvidere kan denne model hjælpe til at forstå sammenhængen af øgede endogene katekolaminer og deres indvirkning på hjertefunktion (dvs. hjertefrekvens variabilitet, minutvolumen, etc.). Ved hjælp af forskellige og nye enheder til at observere iltsvind i apnø dykkere nye parametre kan udforskes, og kan udvide vores forståelse af hypoxi i fremtiden.

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Materials

Name Company Catalog Number Comments
SpO2 Dräger Medical AG&CO.KG SHP ACC MCABLE-Masimo Set peripheral SpO2-Monitoring
Non Invasive Blood Pressure (NIBP) Dräger Medical AG&CO.KG NIBP cuff M+,  MP00916 
Electrocardiographic (ECG)   Dräger Medical AG&CO.KG Infinity M540 Monitor ECG monitoring
Docking station Dräger Medical AG&CO.KG M500 Docking Station connection of M540 to laptop
NIRS NONIN Medical’s EQUANOX Model 7600 Regional Oximeter System measuring of cerebral and  tissue oxygenation
NIRS diodes EQUANOX Advance Sensor Model 8004CA suited for measuring cerebral and somatic oxygen-saturation
Laptop 
DataGrabber Dräger Medical AG&CO.KG DataGrabber v2005.10.16 software to synchronize M540 with laptop
eVision Nonin Medical. Inc. Version 1.3.0.0 software to synchronize NONIN with laptop

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References

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  2. Shah, N., Trivedi, N. K., Clack, S. L., Shah, M., Shah, P. P., Barker, S. Impact of hypoxemia on the performance of cerebral oximeter in volunteer subjects. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol. 12 (3), 201-209 (2000).
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Medicin hypoxi apnø NIRS hjerne nødsituation RSO SpO
En model til simulere klinisk relevant Hypoxi i mennesker
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Eichhorn, L., Kessler, F.,More

Eichhorn, L., Kessler, F., Böhnert, V., Erdfelder, F., Reckendorf, A., Meyer, R., Ellerkmann, R. K. A Model to Simulate Clinically Relevant Hypoxia in Humans. J. Vis. Exp. (118), e54933, doi:10.3791/54933 (2016).

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  • Research • Medicine
    An Investigation of the Effects of Sports-related Concussion in Youth Using Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging and the Head Impact Telemetry System
  • Research • Medicine
    Corneal Confocal Microscopy: A Novel Non-invasive Technique to Quantify Small Fibre Pathology in Peripheral Neuropathies
  • Research • Medicine
    Methods to Quantify Pharmacologically Induced Alterations in Motor Function in Human Incomplete SCI
  • Research • Medicine
    Multispectral Real-time Fluorescence Imaging for Intraoperative Detection of the Sentinel Lymph Node in Gynecologic Oncology
  • Research • Medicine
    Technique to Collect Fungiform (Taste) Papillae from Human Tongue
  • Research • Medicine
    Assessing Endothelial Vasodilator Function with the Endo-PAT 2000
  • Research • Medicine
    Making Sense of Listening: The IMAP Test Battery
  • Research • Medicine
    An Experimental Paradigm for the Prediction of Post-Operative Pain (PPOP)
  • Research • Biology
    Bioelectric Analyses of an Osseointegrated Intelligent Implant Design System for Amputees
  • Research • Biology
    Demonstration of Cutaneous Allodynia in Association with Chronic Pelvic Pain
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