This report provides a detailed description of the methodology and results of simultaneous endocardial and epicardial optical mapping of electrical excitation in the intact left atrium of a Langendorff-perfused sheep heart during stretch-induced atrial fibrillation.
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Method Article
High-Resolution Endocardial and Epicardial Optical Mapping in a Sheep Model of Stretch-Induced Atrial Fibrillation
In This Article
Summary
Abstract
Atrial fibrillation (AF) is a complex cardiac arrhythmia with high morbidity and mortality.1,2 It is the most common sustained cardiac rhythm disturbance seen in clinical practice and its prevalence is expected to increase in the coming years.3 Increased intra-atrial pressure and dilatation have been long recognized to lead to AF,1,4 which highlights the relevance of using animal models and stretch to study AF dynamics. Understanding the mechanisms underlying AF requires visualization of the cardiac electrical waves with high spatial and temporal resolution. While high-temporal resolution can be achieved by conventional electrical mapping traditionally used in human electrophysiological studies, the small number of intra-atrial electrodes that can be used simultaneously limits the spatial resolution and precludes any detailed tracking of the electrical waves during the arrhythmia. The introduction of optical mapping in the early 90's enabled wide-field characterization of fibrillatory activity together with sub-millimeter spatial resolution in animal models5,6 and led to the identification of rapidly spinning electrical wave patterns (rotors) as the sources of the fibrillatory activity that may occur in the ventricles or the atria.7-9 Using combined time- and frequency-domain analyses of optical mapping it is possible to demonstrate discrete sites of high frequency periodic activity during AF, along with frequency gradients between left and right atrium. The region with fastest rotors activates at the highest frequency and drives the overall arrhythmia.10,11 The waves emanating from such rotor interact with either functional or anatomic obstacles in their path, resulting in the phenomenon of fibrillatory conduction.12 Mapping the endocardial surface of the posterior left atrium (PLA) allows the tracking of AF wave dynamics in the region with the highest rotor frequency. Importantly, the PLA is the region where intracavitary catheter-based ablative procedures are most successful terminating AF in patients,13 which underscores the relevance of studying AF dynamics from the interior of the left atrium. Here we describe a sheep model of acute stretch-induced AF, which resembles some of the characteristics of human paroxysmal AF. Epicardial mapping on the left atrium is complemented with endocardial mapping of the PLA using a dual-channel rigid borescope c-mounted to a CCD camera, which represents the most direct approach to visualize the patterns of activation in the most relevant region for AF maintenance.
Protocol
1. Heart removal and Langendorff perfusion
Sheep weighing 35-40 Kg are anesthetized using 4-6 mg/Kg propofol and 60-100 mg/Kg of sodium pentobarbital. Hearts are removed via thoracotomy and connected to a Langendorff-perfusion system with circulating oxygenated (95% O2, 5% CO2) Tyrode's solution at a constant flow rate of 240-270 ml/min, pH 7.4 and 35.5-37.5 °C. The Tyrode's composition (in mM) is: NaCl 130, KCl 4.0, MgCl2 1, CaCl2 1.8, NaHCO3 24, NaH2PO4 1.2, Glucose 5.6, and Albumin 0.04 g /L. Blebbistatin 10 μM (Enzo Life Science International, INC. Plymouth Meeting, PA, USA) is used to reduce the contractile force.
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Discussion
The characteristics of acute stretch-induced AF in the isolated sheep heart resemble some of the properties of human paroxysmal AF. An acute increase in intra-atrial pressure in the sheep heart allows the maintenance of AF for long periods of time, similar to a higher risk of AF observed in patients with atrial dilatation.1 The presence of left-to-right DF gradients in the sheep atria is also similar to those registered in human electrophysiological studies.16 Therefore, understanding the mechanism .......
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Disclosures
No conflicts of interest declared.
Acknowledgements
Supported in part by NHLBI Grants P01-HL039707 and P01-HL087226 and the Leducq Foundation (J.J. and O.B.), by a Spanish Society of Cardiology Fellowship, Fundación Pedro Barrié de la Maza and Fundación Alfonso Martín Escudero (D.F.R.), by Fédération Française de Cardiologie (R.P.M.), by a Heart Rhythm Society fellowship Award, The Fellowship of Japan Heart Foundation/The Japanese Society of Electrocardiology (M.Y.).
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Materials
| Name | Company | Catalog Number | Comments |
|---|---|---|---|
| Heparin | Sigma-Aldrich | H3393 | |
| Propofol | Abbott Laboratories | 5206-04-03 | |
| Pentobarbital | Lundbeck Inc | NDC 67386-501-55 | |
| Introducer 18 Gauge | Terumo Medical Corp. | SS*FF1832 | |
| Cuffed endotracheal tube (9 mm) | DRE Veterinary | #9440 | |
| Fiber Optic Laryngoscope Case | DRE Veterinary | #991 | |
| Fiber Optic Blade | DRE Veterinary | #984 | |
| Operating Scissors | DRE Veterinary | #9702#1944 | |
| Scalpel Handle #3 Solid 4" | Roboz Surgical Instruments Co. | RS-9843 | |
| Sterile Scalpel Blades | Roboz Surgical Instruments Co. | RS-9801-10 | |
| Ventilation bag | Westmed | 562013 | |
| Sims Scissors Curved Sharp/Blunt | Roboz Surgical Instruments Co. | RS-7035 | |
| Tissue Forceps (×2) | DRE Veterinary | #1895 | |
| KANTROWITZ Thoracic Forceps, 11" | Biomedical Research Instruments | 34-1980 | |
| Finochietto Large Chest Spreader | Kapp Surgical Instrument Inc. | KS-7301 | |
| Thoracotomy shears | Rostfrei Solingen | ||
| Plastic tray | Nalge Nunc international | Fischer | |
| Bonn Scissors (×2) | Roboz Surgical Instruments Co. | RS-5840SC | |
| Surgical silk | Fisher Scientific | 50-900-04214 | |
| Micro Dissecting Forceps | Roboz Surgical Instruments Co. | RS-5130 | |
| Tetrapolar electrode catheters (Torq) (×4) | Medtronic Inc. | 05580SP | |
| Digital sensor. Biopac Systems transducer | Biopac Systems, Inc. | RX104A | |
| Biopac Systems amplifier | Biopac Systems, Inc. | DA-100C | |
| Di-4-ANEPPS | Sigma-Aldrich | D8604-5mg | |
| Blebbistatin | Enzo Life Sciences | BML-E1315-0025 | |
| LittleJ– CCD video camera(×2) | SciMeasure Analytical Systems, Inc. | ||
| Dual-channel rigid borescope | Everest VIT, Inc. | R10-25-0-90 | |
| Perfusion pumps (×2) | Cole-Parmer | GK-77920-30 | |
| Temperature probe | Cole-Parmer | R-08491-02 | |
| pH meter | Fisher Scientific | 01-913-806 | |
| Digital temperature gauge | Cole-Parmer | GK89000-10 | |
| Oxygenator filters | Sorin | 05318 | |
| Silicon perfusion tubes (L/S 15) | Masterflex (Cole Palmer) | 96410-15 | |
| Laser light guides (×6) | Oriel Corp. | 77536 | |
| Liquid light-guide (0.2 in core) | Newport Corp. | 77556 | |
| Laser generator (1 watt) (×1) | Shanghai Dream Lsaer Tecchnology | SDL-532-1000T | |
| Laser generator (5 watt) (×1) | Newport Corp. | MILL 5sJ |
References
- Kannel, W. B., Wolf, P. A., Benjamin, E. J., Levy, D. Prevalence, incidence, prognosis, and predisposing conditions for atrial fibrillation: population-based estimates. Am J Cardiol. 82, (1998).
- Wolf, P. A., Abbott, R. D., Kannel, W. B.
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