由成比例的荧光显微镜测量吞噬体pH值
Summary
Phagosomal pH influences phagosome maturation, oxidant production, phagosomal killing as well as antigen presentation. Here we describe a ratiometric method for measuring time-course and endpoint pH changes in individual phagosomes in living phagocytes using fluorescence microscopy.
Abstract
吞噬作用是通过它先天免疫细胞吞噬细菌，细胞凋亡或其它外来粒子以杀死或中和摄入材料，或提供它作为抗原并引发适应性免疫反应的基本处理。吞噬体的pH值是一个重要的参数调节裂变或融合endomembranes和活化的蛋白水解酶，事件，允许吞噬液泡成熟为一个降解细胞器。此外，需要用于生产高水平的活性氧（ROS），它是必不可少的有效杀伤和信令到其他宿主组织的H +的易位。许多细胞内病原体通过限制吞噬体酸化，突出吞噬体生物pH值的重要性颠覆吞噬杀灭。在这里，我们描述了一个比例测量方法吞噬体pH值在使用异硫氰酸荧光素（FITC）标记的嗜中性粒细胞酵母多糖为吞噬TARGETS和活细胞成像。该测定法是基于FITC，，它是通过酸性pH时在490nm激发而不是当在440nm激发时，允许pH依赖比率的量化，而不是绝对的荧光，一单一染料的淬灭的荧光性质。还提供了用于进行原位染料校准和转换比实际的pH值的详细协议。单染料比例的方法通常被认为优于单波长或双染料伪比例协议，因为它们对扰动如漂白较不敏感，焦点改变，激光的变化，且不均匀标签，其中扭曲测量的信号。这个方法可以很容易地修改，以测量pH在其他吞噬细胞类型，和酵母聚糖可通过任何其它的含胺粒子取代，从惰性珠活的微生物。最后，该方法可以适于以利用其它荧光探针不同的pH值范围或其它phagosom敏感的人的活动，使之成为一个广义的协议吞噬小体的功能成像。
Introduction
Phagocytosis, the process through which innate immune cells engulf large particles, evolved from the eating mechanism of single-celled organisms, and involves binding to a target, enveloping it with a membrane and pinching the membrane off to form a vacuole within the cytosol called a phagosome. While the phagosomal membrane is derived from the plasma membrane, active protein and lipid sorting, as well as fusion with endomembranes during phagosome formation, transform the phagosome into a distinct organelle within the cell with degradative properties that allow the killing, neutralization and breakdown of the ingested material1-3. This process, called phagosomal maturation, relies on the delivery of a host of proteolytic and microbicidal enzymes, including the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase which transfers electrons into phagosomes producing the strong oxidant O2– and its derivative reactive oxygen species (ROS) 2,4.
The luminal pH of phagosomes has a profound influence on several events required for phagosome function. First, pH influences trafficking of endomembranes in general, as pH-dependent conformational changes of transmembrane trafficking regulators alters the recruitment of trafficking determinants such as Arfs, Rabs and vesicular coat-proteins, which in turn define which vesicles may fuse with phagosomes 5-8. Second, the ionic composition of the phagosomal lumen is also transformed as phagosomes mature, and some ion transporters, such as the Na+/H+ exchanger or ClC family Cl–/H+ antiporters, which promote phagocytic function, rely on H+ translocation 9,10. Similarly, ROS production is intimately linked with phagosomal pH. ROS and its toxic oxidant byproducts have long been recognized as crucial for phagosomal killing in neutrophils 4,11,12, and have been shown to play critical roles in other phagocytes including macrophages, dendritic cells (DCs) and amoeba 13-16. The NADPH oxidase is an electrogenic enzyme that releases H+ in the cytosol as NADPH is consumed, and that requires the simultaneous transfer of H+ through companion HVCN1 channels alongside the transported electrons into the phagosomal lumen, in order to alleviate the massive depolarization that would otherwise lead to self-inhibition of the enzyme 17-21. Finally, several proteolytic enzymes have optimal activity at different pH, so time-dependent phagosomal pH changes can influence which enzymes are active and when. The importance of phagosomal pH is highlighted by organisms such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Franciscella tularensis and Salmonella typherium that subvert phagocytic killing at least in part by altering phagosomal pH 22-24.
In mammals the main phagocytes are neutrophils, macrophages and dendritic cells, and depending on cell type, time-dependent phagosomal pH changes can vary widely, and appear to play different roles. In macrophages a strong and rapid acidification mediated by the ATP-dependent proton pump vacuolar ATPase (V-ATPase) is one of the key factors mediating killing 25-27, resembling the mechanisms present in amoeba that use phagocytosis as an eating mechanism 28. In these cells activation of acidic proteases is thought to play a key role. In contrast, neutrophil killing relies more on ROS as well as HOCl produced by myeloperoxidase (MPO)11, and the pH remains neutral or alkaline during the first 30 min acidifying only later 29,30. Neutral pH has been suggested to favor the activity of oxidative proteases such as certain cathepsins. In DCs phagosomal pH is controversial, with some reporting acidification and others neutral or alkaline pH 31,32, but ROS and pH may profoundly influence the ability of these cells to present antigens to T cells, one of their main functions 33.
Importantly, hormones, chemokines and cytokines may produce signaling events that induce maturation and changes in phagocyte behavior, and in turn influence phagosomal pH 34,35. Similarly, drugs, for example the antimalarial chloroquine, which is also considered for anti-cancer therapies 36, may affect phagosomal pH and therefore immune outcomes. Thus, a variety of cell biologists, immunologists, microbiologists and drug developers may be interested in measuring phagosomal pH when seeking to understand the mechanisms underlying the effects of a particular genetic disruption, bioactive compound or microorganism on innate and adaptive immune responses.
Here we describe a method for measuring phagosomal pH in neutrophils that allowed us to show the importance of the HVCN1 channel in regulating neutrophil phagosomal pH 19. The method is based on the ratiometric property of fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) whose fluorescence emission at 535 nm is pH sensitive when excited at 490 nm but not 440 nm 37. When this dye is chemically coupled to a target, in this case zymosan, it can be followed using wide-field fluorescence microscopy, where cells are imaged as they phagocytose, and phagosomal pH changes are measured in real time as the phagosome matures. The actual pH is then gleaned by performing a calibration experiment where cells that have phagocytosed are exposed to solutions of different pH that contain the ionophores nigericin and monensin, that allow the rapid equilibration of the pH within phagosomes with the external solution. Ratio values are then compared to the known pH of solutions, a calibration curve is constructed by nonlinear regression and the resulting equation used to calculate pH from the ratio value.
Protocol
Representative Results
Discussion
虽然更多的时间比其他的方法，如光谱学和FACS，其采用使用pH敏感染料耦合到目标的一个类似的策略，但测量吞噬体的群体的平均pH值消耗，显微镜提供了几个优点。首先是，内部和外部的限制，但不内化，颗粒很容易被分辨，而无需添加其它化学品，如台盼蓝或抗体，以淬灭或标签外部粒子，分别。二是，继细胞进行实时让研究人员能观察吞噬过程中同步等迁移，传感和有约束力的粒子效果可?…
Divulgaciones
The authors have nothing to disclose.
Acknowledgements
The authors are financially supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation through an operating grant N° 31003A-149566 (to N.D.), and The Sir Jules Thorn Charitable Overseas Trust through a Young Investigator Subsidy (to P.N.).
Materials
| Zymosan A powder | Sigma-Aldrich | Z4250 | Various providers exist |
| Fluorescein isothiocyanate | Sigma-Aldrich | F7250 | Various providers exist |
| Anti-zymosan antibody (Zymosan A Bioparticles opsonizing reagent) | Life Technologies | Z2850 | Sigma-Aldrich O6637 is an equivalent product. Alternatively 25% serum can be used as an opsonizing reagent. |
| 4-Aminobenzoic hydrazide (4-ABH) | Santa Cruz | sc-204107 | Toxic, use gloves, various providers exist |
| Diphenyleneiodonium chloride (DPI) | Sigma-Aldrich | D2926 | Toxic, use gloves, various providers exist |
| Concanamycin A (ConcA) | Sigma-Aldrich | 27689 | Toxic, use gloves, various providers exist |
| Nigericin | Sigma-Aldrich | N7143 | Toxic, use gloves, various providers exist |
| Monensin | Enzo | ALX-380-026-G001 | Toxic, use gloves, various providers exist |
| Phosphate buffered saline (PBS) | Life Technologies | 14200-075 | Various providers exist |
| Hank's balance salt solution | Life Technologies | 14025092 | Ringer's balanced salt solution or other clear physiological buffers may be substituted. |
| Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) | Sigma-Aldrich | S7795 | Various providers exist |
| 2-(N-Morpholino)ethanesulfonic acid (MES) | Sigma-Aldrich | M3671 | Various providers exist |
| 4-(2-Hydroxyethyl)piperazine-1-ethanesulfonic acid (HEPES) | Sigma-Aldrich | H3375 | Various providers exist |
| N-Methyl-D-glucamine (NMDG) | Sigma-Aldrich | M2004 | Various providers exist |
| Ethylene glycol-bis(2-aminoethylether)-N,N,N′,N′-tetraacetic acid (EGTA) | Sigma-Aldrich | 3777 | Various providers exist |
| Tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (Tris) | Sigma-Aldrich | T1503 | Various providers exist |
| Potassium chloride (KCl) | Sigma-Aldrich | P9333 | Various providers exist |
| Sodium chloride (NaCl) | Sigma-Aldrich | S7653 | Various providers exist |
| Magnesium chloride (MgCl2) | Sigma-Aldrich | M8266 | Various providers exist |
| Absolute Ethanol (EtOH) | Sigma-Aldrich | 2860 | Various providers exist |
| Glass-bottom 35 mm petri dishes (Fluorodish) | World Precision Instruments | FD35-100 | Ibidi µ-clear dishes or coverslips with appropriate imaging chambers may be sustituted |
| Sonicating water bath | O. Kleiner AG | A sonicator may be used instead, various instrument providers exist | |
| Heamocytometer | Marienfeld GmbH | Various instrument providers exist | |
| Widefield live imaging microscope | Carl Zeiss AG | Various instrument providers exist, but the microscope must be able to image 440/535 and 490/535 excitation/emission respective. Spinning disk confocal set-ups with brightfield capabilities may substituted, but zymosan tend to go out of focus more often. | |
| Peristaltic pump (Dynamax RP-1) | Rainin | Various instrument providers exist | |
| pH meter | Schott Gerate GmbH | Various instrument providers exist | |
| Manual Counter | Milian SA | Various instrument providers exist |
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