Lipopolysaccharide Infusion as a Porcine Endotoxemic Shock Model

Summary

We provide a protocol for an experimental endotoxemic shock model in pigs by infusion of lipopolysaccharide.

Abstract

Sepsis and septic shock are frequently encountered in patients treated in intensive care units (ICUs) and are among the leading causes of death in these patients. It is caused by a dysregulated immune response to an infection. Even with optimized treatment, mortality rates remain high, which makes further insights into the pathophysiology and new treatment options necessary. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a component of the cell membrane of gram-negative bacteria, which are often responsible for infections causing sepsis and septic shock.

The severity and high mortality of sepsis and septic shock make standardized experimental studies in humans impossible. Thus, an animal model is needed for further studies. The pig is especially well suited for this purpose as it closely resembles humans in anatomy, physiology, and size.

This protocol provides an experimental model for endotoxemic shock in pigs by LPS infusion. We were able to reliably induce changes frequently observed in septic shock patients, including hemodynamic instability, respiratory failure, and acidosis. This will allow researchers to gain valuable insight into this highly relevant condition and evaluate new therapeutic approaches in an experimental setting.

Introduction

Sepsis and septic shock rank among the leading causes of mortality in patients receiving intensive care treatment^1,2,3. Sepsis arises when an infection triggers a dysregulated immune response resulting in multiorgan failure. It is characterized by life-threatening symptoms, including hemodynamic instability, respiratory distress, hepatic and renal failure, as well as cognitive impairment^4,5. Septic shock represents a subset of sepsis with particularly severe symptoms that significantly increase mortality. These symptoms include persistent hypotension requiring vasopressor therapy and a serum lactate level exceeding 2 mmol∙L^-1 4,5. Mortality rates in patients with septic shock have been estimated as high as 40%, even with hospital treatment^1,3,5.

Gram-negative bacteria, such as Pseudomonas and Escherichia coli, often cause infections triggering this dysregulated immune response⁴. The underlying pathophysiological mechanisms are complex and not yet fully understood. One well-described aspect involves the activation of Toll-like receptors on immune cells by pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), leading to the release of cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα) or Interleukin 1 (IL 1)⁴. One of these PAMPs is lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which constitutes a component of the cell membrane in gram-negative bacteria⁶. LPS has been employed in animal models to induce endotoxemia and endotoxemic shock^7,8.

Animal models provide a controlled and standardized setting to develop and investigate novel treatment strategies. Due to its similar anatomy, immunological physiology, and comparable hemodynamic parameters, the pig model is particularly well-suited for studying the effects of endotoxemic shock^9,10. Furthermore, standard medical equipment commonly used in human patients can be readily applied in pigs due to the similar size of their airways and blood vessels, facilitating instrumentation and hemodynamic monitoring.

With this protocol, we provide an experimental model for endotoxemic shock in pigs by intravenously infusing LPS derived from E. coli. To monitor the effects, we measured hemodynamic and pulmonary parameters, including arterial blood pressure, heart rate, peripheral oxygen saturation, pulmonary arterial pressure, and airway pressure. To evaluate the influence of endotoxemia on cerebral oxygen supply, we used near-infrared spectrometry (NIRS). With this method, the cerebral oxygen saturation can be evaluated via an adhesive electrode applied to the forehead¹¹.

Protocol

The experiments in this protocol were approved by the State and Institutional Animal Care Committee (Landesuntersuchungsamt Rheinland-Pfalz, Koblenz, Germany, TVA G21-1-080). The experiments were conducted in accordance with the ARRIVE guidelines. For this study, six healthy male German Landrace pigs aged 2-3 months and weighing 30-35 kg were used. The experimental timeline is summarized in Figure 1. The details related to all materials and instruments used in this protocol are listed in the…

Representative Results

For this study, six healthy male pigs aged 2-3 months and weighing 30-35 kg were anesthetized and received an infusion of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to induce endotoxemia. To determine the appropriate dosage of LPS required to consistently induce symptoms of shock, the pigs were administered various induction doses of LPS ranging from 100 µg kg-1 to 200 µg kg-1 over a 30-min period, followed by a maintenance dose of 1/10 of the initial dose per hour for the remainder of the experiment. All a…

Discussion

We present a protocol for inducing experimental endotoxemia in pigs through LPS infusion, aiming to reliably induce changes commonly observed in sepsis and septic shock. Several critical steps need to be considered in this protocol. Adequate sedation of pigs prior to transport is crucial to prevent stress-induced elevation of catecholamine levels, which could potentially compromise the results. Intubation of pigs may pose challenges compared to humans due to the anatomical features of their elongated snouts. To address t…

Materials

Atracurium Hikma 50 mg/5mL	Hikma Pharma GmbH, Martinsried
Azaperone (Stresnil) 40 mg/mL	Lilly Deutschland GmbH, Bad Homburg, Germany
BD Discardit II Spritze 2, 5, 10, 20 mL	Becton Dickinson S.A. Carretera, Mequinenza Fraga, Spain	syringe
BD Luer Connecta	Becton Dickinson Infusion Therapy, AB Helsingborg, Schweden	3-way-stopcock
Curafix i.v. classics	Lohmann & Rauscher International GmbH & Co. KG, Rengsdorf, Germany	Cannula retention dressing
Datex Ohmeda S5	GE Healthcare Finland Oy, Helsinki, Finland	hemodynamic monitor
Engström Carestation	GE Heathcare, Madison USA	ventilator
Fentanyl-Janssen 0.05 mg/mL	Janssen-Cilag GmbH, Neuss	fentanyl
Führungsstab, Durchmesser 4.3	Rüsch	endotracheal tube introducer
Incetomat-line 150 cm	Fresenius, Kabi Deutschland, GmbH	perfusor line
Intrafix Primeline	B. Braun Melsungen AG, Melsungen, Germany	Infusion line
Introducer sheath 5 Fr.	Terumo Healthcare	arterial introducer
INVOS	Medtronic, Dublin, Ireland	near infrared spectrometry
JOZA Einmal Nitril Untersuchungshandschuhe	JOZA, München, Germany	disposable gloves
Laryngoscope, 45.48.50, KL 2000	Medicon	Laryngoscope handle
Littmann Classic III Stethoscope	3M Deutschland GmbH, Neuss, Germany	stethoscope
LPS (E. coli; Serotype O111:B4)	Sigma-Aldrich, Switzerland
MAC Two-Lumen Central venous access set	Arrow international inc. Reading, PA, USA	venous introducer
Maimed Vlieskompresse	Maimed GmbH, Neuenkirchen, Germany	Fleece compress to fix the tongue
Masimo LNCS Adtx SpO2 sensor	Masimo Corporation Irvine, Ca 92618 USA	saturation clip for the tail
Masimo LNCS TC-I SpO2 ear clip sensor	Masimo Corporation Irvine, Ca 92618 USA	Saturation clip for the ear
Masimo Radical 7	Masimo Corporation Irvine, Ca 92618 USA	periphereal oxygen saturation
Midazolam 15 mg/3 mL	B.Braun Melsungen AG, Germany
Midmark Canine Mask Small Plastic with Diaphragm FRSCM-0005	Midmark Corp., Dayton, Ohio, USA	dog ventilation mask
Monocryl surgical suture	Johnson & Johnson, Belgium
	B.Braun Melsungen AG, Germany	saline solution
NaCl 0.9 %	Sanofi- Aventis, Seutschland GmbH
Octeniderm farblos	Schülke & Mayr GmbH, Nordenstedt, Germany	Alcoholic disinfectant
Original Perfusor syringe 50 mL	B.Braun Melsungen AG, Germany	perfusor syringe
PA-Katheter Swan Ganz 7.5 Fr 110 cm	Edwards Lifesciences LLC, Irvine CA, USA	Swan-Ganz catheter
Perfusor FM Braun	B.Braun Melsungen AG, Germany	syringe pump
PiCCO catheter	PULSION Medical Systems SE, Feldkirchen, DE
Potassium chloride 1 M	Fresenius, Kabi Germany GmbH
Propofol 2% 20 mg/mL (50 mL flasks)	Fresenius, Kabi Deutschland, GmbH
Pulse-contour continous cardiac output System PiCCO2	PULSION Medical Systems SE, Feldkirchen, DE
Rüschelit Super Safety Clear >ID 6/6.5 /7.0 mm	Teleflex Medical Sdn. Bhd, Malaysia	endotracheal tube
Sonosite Micromaxx Ultrasoundsystem	Sonosite Bothell, WA, USA	ultrasound
Stainless Macintosh Größe 4	Welch Allyn69604	blade for laryngoscope
Sterofundin	B.Braun Melsungen AG, Melsungen, Germany	Balanced electrolyte solution
Vasco OP sensitive	B.Braun Melsungen AG, Germany	sterile gloves
Vasofix Safety 22 G-16 G	B.Braun Melsungen AG, Germany	venous catheter
VBM Cuff Manometer	VBM Medizintechnik GmbH, Sulz a.N., Germany	cuff pressure gauge