胭脂测试： 寻找自我意识
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资料来源： 实验室的尼古拉 Noles 和朱迪思 Danovitch — — 路易斯维尔大学
人类是不同于其他动物的很多方面，但使人类与众不同的能力之一是其先进的能力，了解其他人和模拟他们的思想和感情，甚至当他们自己不相符的思想和感情。在科学术语，这些能力被称为心理，理论，这种理解是必要的活动，如赞美、 群体工作、 请求帮助，和说善意的谎言。
不，人类天生具有思维的充分发展理论。个人理解，他们是与其他人分开，他们有不同的欲望，和知识需要一种既定的自我感。因此，发展中国家的自我认知和自我意识是心理的一些道路上发展成熟理论的初始步骤。学习孩子的新兴的自我意识是复杂的因为儿童概念发展超出了他们对语言的掌握。为了解决这一问题，研究人员借用于检测动物中的自我识别方法和应用他们到年幼的儿童。因此，用一面镜子和一点化妆，胭脂任务诞生。
该视频演示如何研究人员评估儿童的自我意识在不同的年龄。
Procédure
Résultats
In order to have enough power to see significant developmental shifts, researchers would have to test approximately 20 children per age group, not including infants dropped due to fussiness. Children who have a sense of self-recognition and self-awareness usually touch the marker on their foreheads upon seeing it in a reflection. In contrast, children who fail the test usually ignore the mark or try to touch the reflection of the mark in the mirror. Researchers also report that some children who fail the task assume they are looking at another child in the room, and they touch the mirror or look behind it to find their new friend.
Only a small proportion of the 8- to 12-month-old infants usually pass the rouge test. The vast majority of the infants smile and play with the mirror, and many of them try to touch the mark in their reflection. In contrast, most 20- to 24-month-olds see their reflection and reach up to examine the mark on their forehead (Figure 1).
Figure 1: The proportion of children demonstrating self-awareness increases over time.
Applications and Summary
Most children begin to show the beginnings of self-awareness just before age two. At this time, they also begin to develop a rudimentary theory of mind, including the idea that different people have different preferences and desires. Building upon this basic understanding of others’ minds, children develop to represent how other people feel, leading to the development of complex comparative emotions, such as empathy, envy, and embarrassment, and pretend play, which allow them to practice their social skills even when they are alone. Children also learn to represent what other people see and know, and use this information to guide their social interactions, including knowing when and if they should try to help a friend or how to keep a surprise party a secret.2
Humans are amazing social creatures, but theory of mind is not unique to humans. Apes, elephants, dolphins, dogs, and even some birds have demonstrated the ability to recognize themselves using the rouge test. Encouraged by these findings, researchers have hypothesized that self-awareness is an important building block of social connectedness.
References
- Amsterdam, B. Mirror self-image reactions before age two. Developmental Psychobiology., 5, 297-305 (1972).
- Lewis, M., & Brooks-Gunn, J. Social cognition and the acquisition of self. New York: Plenum (1979).
Transcription
Individuals are not born with a fully developed theory of mind—the unique ability to understand others and simulate their thoughts and feelings, independently of self-desires and knowledge.
Self-recognition and self-awareness are necessary to develop a mature theory of mind. Therefore, studying a child’s emerging sense of self—like understanding one’s contribution when working amongst a group—is valuable to developmental research.
However, examining self-awareness in children is difficult because their mastery of language lags behind their conceptual development. This problem led researchers to adapt methods from animal self-recognition studies and develop the rouge task—an established technique to assess sense of self.
Using methods adapted by Beulah Amsterdam in the 1970s, this video demonstrates a simple approach for how to design and conduct the rouge test with a mirror and a bit of make-up, as well as how to analyze and interpret results on the progression of self-awareness in infants and young children before age 2.
In this experiment, children in two age groups—8- to 12-month-olds and 20- to 24-month-olds—are covertly marked on their forehead with brightly colored make-up and then observed while they look at their reflection in a mirror.
Children who only look at the mirror or who touch their reflection in the mirror fail the test, whereas those who see their reflection and touch the mark on their forehead pass.
In this case, the dependent variable is the number of children in each age group that touch the mark on their actual forehead.
It is hypothesized that the proportion of children who demonstrate self-awareness improves with age.
Before the experiment begins, verify access to a mirror large enough to clearly see the child’s face and a brightly colored and washable product, like lipstick that can be safely applied to their skin. Then, set up a video camera to capture the child’s entire reflection.
To begin, greet the parent and child and briefly inform them about the study. Then, put a small amount of lipstick on your finger.
Once inside, covertly apply lipstick onto the child’s forehead without them being able to see or feel it on their body.
Finally, video record this session: place the child in front of the mirror and observe them interacting with their reflection or physical mark.
Once the study is finished, assign two independent coders to watch the videos and designate whether each child passed or failed the test. Note that the judgments made by both coders should be compared by determining the inter-rater reliability estimate using Cohen’s kappa.
After all of the videos have been scored, generate the proportion of children that passed and failed in each age group, and use non-parametric statistics to determine if any age group differences exist.
Notice that only a small percentage of 8- to 12-month-old infants passed the test. In contrast, over 70% of 20- to 24-month-olds saw their reflection and reached up to examine the mark on their forehead, demonstrating self-awareness.
Now that you are familiar with designing a psychology experiment to investigate children’s self-awareness at a very young age, you can apply this procedure to answer additional questions regarding the normal development of children’s understanding of self and others.
As children develop self-awareness and a basic theory of mind, they begin to understand how other people feel, leading to the emergence of complex behaviors and emotions, including empathy.
Children also learn how to represent what other people know and use this information to guide their own social interactions—such as knowing if and when to keep a surprise party a secret.
In addition, children develop the ability to engage in pretend play, which allows them to practice their social skills, even when they are alone.
Before the self-concept studies were conducted in infants, Gordon Gallup showed that chimpanzees passed the rouge test. Thus, self-awareness is not unique to humans, as many social animals from elephants to birds have demonstrated the ability to relate to others in complex social situations.
You’ve just watched JoVE’s investigation into how children’s self-awareness develops over time. Now you should have a good understanding of how to design and conduct the experiment, and finally how to analyze and interpret the results.
Thanks for watching!