Engineering and Characterization of an Optogenetic Model of the Human Neuromuscular Junction
Summary
We describe a reproducible, automated, and unbiased imaging system for characterizing neuromuscular junction function using human engineered skeletal muscle tissue and optogenetic motoneurons. This system allows for the functional quantification of neuromuscular connectivity over time and detects diminished neuromuscular function caused by neurotoxins and myasthenia gravis patient serum.
Abstract
Many neuromuscular diseases, such as myasthenia gravis (MG), are associated with dysfunction of the neuromuscular junction (NMJ), which is difficult to characterize in animal models due to physiological differences between animals and humans. Tissue engineering offers opportunities to provide in vitro models of functional human NMJs that can be used to diagnose and investigate NMJ pathologies and test potential therapeutics. By incorporating optogenetic proteins into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), we generated neurons that can be stimulated with specific wavelengths of light. If the NMJ is healthy and functional, a neurochemical signal from the motoneuron results in muscle contraction. Through the integration of optogenetics and microfabrication with tissue engineering, we established an unbiased and automated methodology for characterizing NMJ function using video analysis. A standardized protocol was developed for NMJ formation, optical stimulation with simultaneous video recording, and video analysis of tissue contractility. Stimulation of optogenetic motoneurons by light to induce skeletal muscle contractions recapitulates human NMJ physiology and allows for repeated functional measurements of NMJ over time and in response to various inputs. We demonstrate this platform's ability to show functional improvements in neuromuscular connectivity over time and characterize the damaging effects of patient MG antibodies or neurotoxins on NMJ function.
Introduction
The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is the chemical synapse between motoneurons (MNs) and skeletal muscle cells (SkM) that allows for muscle contraction. Toxins, such as neurotoxin α-bungarotoxin (BTX), or neuromuscular diseases (NMD) like myasthenia gravis (MG) can lead to degeneration of the NMJ and reductions in muscle control1. Bioengineered human tissue models better recapitulate the functional and physiological mechanisms of human NMJs and offer greater translational potential than animal models.
While animal models have advanced the understanding of the formation and function of the NMJ, there are significant differences between human and animal synapses that limit the translation of results to humans and make in vivo characterization of the NMJ challenging2,3,4. Studies have shown distinct physiological differences between mouse and human NMJs. Mice have larger NMJs and smaller active zone densities when compared to human NMJs4. Additionally, drug studies conducted in animal models do not always reflect the effects found in human clinical trials. Engineered human tissue models provide the opportunity to study the healthy development of the NMJ and the pathology of neuromuscular diseases and allow for drug screenings. Human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs)5 can be differentiated into a variety of cell types, including skeletal muscle cells6,7 and motoneurons8,9. hiPSCs can be generated easily from patient cells, allowing for better disease modeling10 and drug screening11,12 through patient-specific tissue models.
Two-dimensional (2D) monolayer co-cultures of SkMs and MNs lack the morphology, phenotype, organization, and functional behavior of physiological NMJs. NMJs randomly form in 2D culture, which inhibits the isolation of motor units for analysis, limits accurate functional measurements, and prevents their use for repeated, systematic experiments13. Three-dimensional (3D) tissue models of NMJs overcome many of these limitations, recapitulating the morphological and functional characteristics of physiological NMJs7,14,15,16,17. Using this model, the two tissue types are developed separately and then integrated by directing axonal growth, allowing for more organized NMJs to develop compared to 2D culture systems.
Our previous study demonstrated that combining optogenetics with tissue engineering can allow for accurate non-invasive stimulation and evaluation of NMJ function18,19. Through genetic engineering, light-sensitive proteins can be integrated into the genome of hiPSCs. Integrating channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2), an ion channel that opens in response to blue light, into the membrane of excitable cells such as neurons allows for non-contact spatiotemporal control over cell activation20,21,22. hiPSCs carrying ChR2 can be differentiated into optogenetic motoneurons sensitive to blue light, removing the need for typical invasive electrodes that stimulate neurons and avoiding unwanted stimulation of the muscle cells by electrodes23. This system uses optogenetic motoneurons to stimulate contractions in non-optogenetic skeletal muscle cells. Combining video acquisition and controlled blue light illumination allows for the co-cultured tissues to be simultaneously stimulated and recorded for NMJ function.
MG is caused by autoantibodies targeting nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (AChR), which results in decreased NMJ function and muscle weakness24. It is diagnosed based on presented symptoms, electrodiagnosis, and detection of autoantibodies via serological blood tests. However, not all autoantibodies involved in MG have been identified, and some seronegative patients are diagnosed with MG but with no recognized antibodies25,26. Our system allows for repeated functional assessment of the NMJ before and after the addition of serum from MG patients, providing invaluable insight into the functional and biochemical changes caused by the MG antibodies18. Our protocol illustrates how to produce 3D in vitro models of functional human NMJ that can be used to diagnose and investigate NMJ pathologies and test potential therapeutics. We demonstrate the versatility of the system in two platforms, a microfluidic device, and a larger open-well bioreactor platform.
Protocol
Representative Results
Discussion
This system is an engineered 3D human tissue model that combines optogenetics and video processing to enable automated and unbiased evaluation of NMJ function. Using a standardized protocol, we have demonstrated the ability to measure changes in NMJ function during physiological development and characterize the damaging effects of pathologies such as neurotoxin exposure and myasthenia gravis patient sera.
Previous studies have reported the ability to model MG with optogenetic hPSC-derived moto…
Disclosures
The authors have nothing to disclose.
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge funding support by the NIH [grant numbers EB025765 and EB027062], DOD [award number W81XWH-18-1-0095], and the UCSF Health Innovation via Engineering (HIVE Fellowship). We gratefully acknowledge the Columbia University Stem Cell Core for their help and guidance with cell reprogramming.
Materials
| Cells | |||
| SkMDC | Cook Myosite | P01059-14M | |
| Media and Supplements | |||
| Advanced DMEM/F12 | ThermoFisher Scientific | 12634-020 | |
| Bovine Serum Albumin solution | Millipore Sigma | A9576-50ML | |
| G-5 Supplement (100X) | ThermoFisher Scientific | 17503-012 | |
| Geneticin Selective Antibiotic (G418 Sulfate) (50 mg/mL) | ThermoFisher Scientific | 10131-035 | |
| Insulin, Recombinant Human | Millipore Sigma | 91077C-100MG | |
| Matrigel | Corning | 354277 | |
| mTeSR Plus | Stem Cell Technologies | 100-0276 | |
| MyoTonic Growth Media Kit | Cook Myosite | MK-4444 | |
| N-2 Supplement | ThermoFisher Scientific | 17502-048 | |
| NBactiv4 500 mL | BrainBits LLC | Nb4-500 | |
| Neurobasal Medium | ThermoFisher Scientific | 21103-049 | |
| Neurobasal-A Medium | ThermoFisher Scientific | A13710-01 | |
| Pluronic F-127 | Sigma Aldrich | P2443 | |
| ReLeSR | Stem Cell Technologies | 5872 | |
| Plasticware | |||
| 30 mm cage cube system | ThorLabs | CM1-DCH, CP33, ER1-P4 and ER2-P4 | |
| 37 µm Reversible Strainer, large | Stem Cell Technologies | 27250 | |
| 546 nm short-pass excitation filter | Semrock | FF01-546/SP-25 | |
| 573 nm dichroic mirror | Semrock | FF573-Di01–25×36 | |
| 594 nm long- pass emission filter | Semrock | BLP01-594R-25 | |
| 594 nm long-pass excitation filter | Semrock | BLP01-594R-25 | |
| Blue (470nm) Rebel LED on a SinkPAD-II 10mm Square Base – 65 lm @ 700mA | LuxeonStarLEDs | SP-05-B4 | |
| Carclo 29.8° Frosted 10 mm Circular Beam Optic – Integrated Legs | LuxeonStarLEDs | 10413 | |
| Corning 60 mm Ultra-Low Attachment Culture Dish | Corning | 3261 | |
| Heat sink | LuxeonStarLEDs | LPD-19-10B | |
| Optics | |||
| pluriStrainer 400 µm, 25 pack, sterile | PluriSelect | 43-50400-03 | |
| pluriStrainer 500 µm, 25 pack, sterile | PluriSelect | 43-50500-03 | |
| Red (627nm) Rebel LED on a SinkPAD-II 10mm Square Base – 65 lm @ 700mA | LuxeonStarLEDs | SP-05-R5 | |
| ring-actuated iris diaphragm | ThorLabs | SM1D12D | |
| T-Cube LED drivers | ThorLabs | LEDD1B, KPS101 | |
| Molds | |||
| Female Threaded Hex Standoffs, 3 1/2" 10-32, Partially Threaded 1/2" | McMaster | 91920A046 | |
| Low-Profile C-Clamp | McMaster | 1705A12 | |
| Growth Factors | |||
| Adenosine 3′,5′-cyclic monophosphate | Millipore Sigma | A9501-1G | |
| CHIR 99021, 10 mg | Tocris | 4423/10 | |
| DAPT 10 mg | R&D Systems | 2634/10 | |
| Human CNTF, research grade, 5 µg | Miltenyl Biotec | 130-096-336 | |
| Human Vitronectin Protein, CF | R&D Systems | 2349-VN-100 | |
| Human Vitronectin Protein, CF | R&D Systems | 2349-VN-100 | |
| IGF1 Recombinant Human Protein | ThermoFisher Scientific | PHG0078 | |
| Laminin mouse protein, natural | ThermoFisher Scientific | 23017015 | |
| Recombinant Human Agrin Protein | R&D Systems | 6624-AG-050 | |
| Recombinant Human GDNF Protein, CF 50ug | R&D Systems | 212-GD-050/CF | |
| Recombinant Human Neurotrophin 3 100 ug | Cell Sciences | CRN500D | |
| Recombinant Human Neurotrophin-4 | Cell Sciences | CRN501B | |
| Recombinant Human Sonic Hedgehog/Shh (C24II) N-Terminus | R&D Systems | 1845-SH-100 | |
| Recombinant Human/Murine/Rat BDNF 50 ug | Peprotech | 450-02 | |
| Retinoic Acid, 50 mg | Millipore Sigma | R2625-50 | |
| SAG Smoothened Agonist | Millipore Sigma | 566660 | |
| SB431542 10 mg | Stem Cell Technologies | 72234 | |
| StemMACS LDN-193189 | Miltenyl Biotec | 130-103-925 | |
| Vitronectin from human plasma | Millipore Sigma | V8379-50UG | |
| Y-27632 dihydrochloride | Tocris | 1254 | |
| Antibodies | |||
| α-actinin mAb (Mouse IgG1) | Abcam | ab9465 | |
| Choline Acetyltransferase (ChAT) (Goat) | Millipore | AB144P | |
| Desmin mAb (Mouse IgG1) | Dako | M076029-2 | |
| Myosin Heavy Chain (MHC) (Mouse IgG2b) | DSHB | MF20 | |
| Equipment | |||
| Arduino Uno R3 | Arduino | A000066 | |
| Automated stage | Applied scientific instrumentation | MS- 2000 XYZ | |
| Expanded plasma cleaner | Harrick Plasma | PDC-001 (115V) | |
| Invitrogen Countess Automated Cell Counter | Marshal Scientific | I-CACC | |
| IX-81 Inverted fluorescence microscope | Olympus | IX-ILL100LH | |
| Series Stage Top Incubator System | Tokai Hit STX | TOKAI-HIT-STXG | |
| Zyla 4.2 sCOMS Camera | Andor Technology | ZYLA-4.2P-CL10 | |
| Software | |||
| Arduino Software (IDE) | Arduino | IDE 1.8.19 | |
| Mastercam | Mastercam | Mastercam for Solidworks | |
| Matlab | Matlab | R2021b | |
| NIS elements | Nikon | Basic Research | |
| Solidworks 3D CAD | Solidworks | Solidworks Standard |
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